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endocrinology exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrinology

A

endocrine gland secretions and interaction between hormones and behaviors

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2
Q

hormones

A

chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream; slow and stable to target other glands, organs, cells, and brain/NS
operate over longer distances than NTs and for longer duration
similar to cytokines of immune system and interact together to shape behavior

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3
Q

Arnold Berthold

A

Cockerel Castration
- lack of testes = lack of male sexual behavior and lack of male secondary sex characteristics
- androgens like testosterone responsible for maturation and secondary sex characteristics
- reintroduce testes to castrated eunuch = normal male behavior and development

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4
Q

Frank Beach

A

father of behavioral endocrinology; neural basis for innate behavior
- testosterone in rates with neuroendocrine link
- hormones and behaviors first text

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5
Q

father behavioral endocrinology with neural basis for innate behavior

A

frank beach

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6
Q

autocrine signaling/communication

A

diffusion back on to own/same cell type

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7
Q

paracrine communication

A

local diffusion to other adjacent types of cells

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8
Q

juxtacrine signaling

A

physical contact
(lead to neuronal signaling)

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9
Q

endocrine signaling/comm

A

transport via blood circulation

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10
Q

neurocrine signaling

A

hormone release from nerve cell/neuron to another cell (ex: posterior pituitary)

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11
Q

neural communication

A

processes extend terminally across synaptic cleft to receptors on dendrites, allowing specificity and economy of secretion
rapid faster communication bc close
more specific targeting/local
less hormone on secretion needed to elicit response
communes electrical and chemical signaling

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12
Q

neurotransmitters

A

short distances, fast communication

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13
Q

signaling from hypothalamus

A

neural and endocrine signaling

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14
Q

endocrine system

A

glands and cells to synthesize and secrete hormones; hormone chemical messenger transported thru blood and target organ/cells for hormones to elicit response
+ and - feedback

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15
Q

negative feedback loop example

A

hypothalamus releases GnRH to pituitary to release FSH and LH on ovary and testes to release estradiol, progesterone and testosterone

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16
Q

hormones types

A

amino acid derivatives, peptide hormones, and steroids

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17
Q

adrenal medulla hormones

A

catecholamines of epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine
humans have 90% Epinephrine and 10% NE

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18
Q

catecholamines

A

monoamines from adrenal medulla, epinephrine 90% and norepinephrine

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19
Q

regulation of adrenal medulla

A

Sympathetic NS spinal cord to acetylcholine via chromaffin cells: ganglionic fibers to norepinephrine and adrenal medulla to epinephrine

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20
Q

chromaffin cells

A

synthesize catecholamines (epi and norepi) in adrenal medulla gland by convert tyrosine to L-DOPA to AADC to Dopamine to PMNT to epi and norepi

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21
Q

cortisol

A

triggers adrenal medulla positive feedback on PNMT for epinephrine

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22
Q

effects of catecholamines

A

increase heart rate, vasoconstriction increases BP, decrease insulin secretion, pupil dilation, increase muscle relaxation

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23
Q

steroids

A

require polar carrier protein in blood

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24
Q

hormones vs NT vs cytokines

A

hormones last longer duration, more stable, travel longer distance. neurons require synaptic cleft connection - local and fast like juxtacrine signaling comm. less secreted
NTs bind to hormones

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25
Q

neural and endocrine signaling origin

A

hypothalamus

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26
Q

absence of oxytocin receptors in prairie voles =

A

no effect

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27
Q

gonadal sex differentiation depends on

A

chromosomal sex

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28
Q

polypeptide and monoamine hormones typically …

A

bind with receptors on the cell membrane

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29
Q

hormone secreted by adipose cells

A

leptin

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30
Q

leptin

A

secreted by adipose cells

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31
Q

difference between hormones and NT

A

hormones secreted into circulatory system

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32
Q

requires antibodies

A

ELISA

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33
Q

castrations occur

A

before puberty

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34
Q

hormone antagonists

A

block hormone or NT action

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35
Q

techniques to study testosterone content in blood and location of receptors for hormone in brain

A

radioimmunology and autoradiography

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36
Q

2 ways hormones affect behavior and how behavior affects hormones

A
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37
Q

techniques used to study endocrinology

A

Ablation and replacement, optogenetics, mini-osmotic pump, bioassay (rabbit test for pregnancy), radioimmunology use antibody-antigen binding, immunohistochemistry labels antibodies to show location of hormones in tissue, blot test, insitu hybridization for gene expression

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38
Q

pathway a hormone takes to reach a target cell from production to target cell response

A
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39
Q

major endocrine glands and examples of hormones secreted from them and that hormones function

A

anterior and posterior pituitary, adrenal (medulla) glands, gonads, placenta, brain

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40
Q

compare and contrast steroid and peptide hormones

A

steroid hormones require polar carrier protein molecule

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41
Q

second messangers

A

surface receptors cause cascade effect

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42
Q

amino acid derivative hormones

A

polar

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43
Q

peptide hormones

A

large size, polar, may need carrier protein and bind on cell membrane

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44
Q

steroid hormones

A

lipids, fat soluble, require polar carrier protein

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45
Q

ablation

A

remove hormone so behavior ceases
- surgically remove gland
- block or inhibit receptor
- lesion brain

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46
Q

replacement

A

reintroduce hormone to restore behavior by reimplanting gland or administer supplemental hormone, cease administration of inhibitor, increase hormone concentration. behavior occurs when hormone in high concentration
- use time releases tech to release hormone in natural pattern

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47
Q

challenges to measuring covariance

A

latency delay to hormone action and pulsatile release of hormone, lab environ may alter hormonal responses

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48
Q

immunohistochemistry

A

labeled antibodies show location of hormones in tissue

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49
Q

in situ hybridization

A

for oxytocin receptors, measure gene expression by mrna

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50
Q

hormone agonist

A

stimulates action

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51
Q

antagonist

A

binds to receptor of hormones to block response

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52
Q

audioradiography

A

measure receptors and where receptors are

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53
Q

crispr cas9

A

viral and plasmid gene transfection

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54
Q

kisspeptin hormone

A

responsible for sexual maturation/puberty to release GnRH, LH/FSH and testosterone/estrogen

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55
Q

inactivate/mutate kisspeptin

A

cancer or hypogonadism

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56
Q

hormone receptor binding and activation for hormone types

A
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57
Q

role of hormones in stress response

A

cortisol to epinephrine/adrenaline in adrenal medulla

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58
Q

role of hormones in homeostasis

A
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59
Q

role of hormones in catabolic/anabolic processes

A
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60
Q

intracrine

A

intracellular

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61
Q

mini-osmotic pumps

A

administer hormones for 2-6 weeks as implant in rodents that achieve steady-state serum levels

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62
Q

hormones are secreted…

A

into circulatory system by glands

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63
Q

tinbergen levels of analysis 1951

A

mechanistic, evolution, ontogeny

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64
Q

bertholds study concluded

A

testes produced substances that supported male traits and behaviors

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65
Q

evidence of hormone-behavior interactions

A

hormonally dependent behavior disappears when the source of hormone is removed

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66
Q

target cell

A

has specific receptors that may activate cascade of events

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67
Q

ectocrine signaling

A

from external source - pheromones

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68
Q

endocrine glands

A

ductless and empty to blood stream

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69
Q

exocrine glands

A

have ducts or tubes at release site and empty into organ chamber or lumen
- saliva, sweat, mammary

70
Q

endocrine systems

A

ductless endocrine glands with rich blood supplies. hormone secretions into blood stream and travel to many cells interacting with cells that express specific receptor for binding. hormone receptors are specific binding site embedded in cell membrane or in cell

71
Q

hormone receptors

A

specific binding site on cell membrane or inside cell
- peptide hormone binds membrane
- steroid hormone binds in cell nucleus

72
Q

water soluble and polar hormones

A

proteins and small peptide hormones are stored in secretory vesicles with protein matric and stimulus for secretion causes vessel to fuse w membrane for release. receptors expressed on outer cell membrane. G-protein coupled receptor most common

73
Q

lipid-soluble and non-polar hormones

A

steroid hormones: readily cross phospholipid bilayers of cell membranes. not stored for release: instead, signal to produce = signal to release and cholesterol is precursor in lipids. require carrier protein for transport in blood.
receptors in nucleus or cytoplasm so pass through lipid bilayers of target cell. hormone enters by diffusion across cell membrane after release from carrier protein. alters rate of gene expression. can be desensitized or down-regulated by internalization. requires second messenger before released into cytosol and can initiate or inhibit enzyme cascade

74
Q

g-protein coupled receptor

A

water soluble/polar protein and peptide hormones

75
Q

receptor in nucleus or cytoplasm

A

steroid hormone

76
Q

receptor expressed on outer cell membrane

A

protein or peptide hormone

77
Q

protein and peptide hormones

A

polar and water soluble; require 2nd messenger to be released into cytosol;
made up individ amino acids bound by peptide bonds

78
Q

peptide hormones

A

short chain of amino acids
water/blood soluble and polar
stored in secretory vesicles in endocrine cells and released by exocytosis

79
Q

water/blood soluble and polar

A

no NOT require carrier protein but protein and peptide hormones stored in secretory vesicles and require 2nd messenger for release into cytosol

80
Q

half life of protein/peptide hormones

A

breakdown by peptidases in time to remove 1/2 hormone conc from blood

81
Q

hypothalamus

A

master regulator of endocrine below thalamus controlling secretions of hormones;
regulates autonomic NS; connections descend and receives input from limbic structures like amygdala;
made of neural tissue with neural inputs
at base of brain
made of neuronal cell bodies called nuclei

82
Q

master regulator endocrine

A

hypothalamus

83
Q

hormone producing glands in brain

A

hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and pineal gland

84
Q

Pineal gland

A

epiphysis in brain processes optic input of light/dark cycle and secretes melatonin to reg. sleep and as antioxidant protect cells and neurons from oxidative damage

85
Q

epiphysis

A

pineal gland in brain

86
Q

melatonin

A

released by epiphysis/pineal gland
potent free radical and antioxidant

87
Q

pituitary gland

A

under hypothalamus. 2 distinct parts: anterior pituitary releases trophic hormones and posterior pituitary connected to hypothalamus. anterior made from tissue dur embryonic development

88
Q

neuroendocrine hypothalamus

A

made of neuronal cell bodies/nuclei
axonal input received from limbic system
controls reproduction and metabolism
contains neurosecretory cells and releases neurohormones in Response to impulse

89
Q

hypothalamic releasing hormones

A

small peptide hormones act as NTs
- TRH thyrotropin RH
- GHRH growth hormone
- RnRH gonadotropin
- MRH - melanotropin
- CRH corticotropin RH
2 inhibiting hormones
- GHIH growth hormone inhibitory somatostatin
GnIH - gonadotropin inhibitory

90
Q

somatostatin

A

GHIH growth hormone inhibitory hormone released from hypothalamus

91
Q

-tropin releasing hormones

A

released by hypothalamus

92
Q

releases trophic hormones

A

anterior pituitary gland

93
Q

RFAmide peptides

A

arginine - phenylalanine - NH2
ex = kisspeptin and GnIH

94
Q

kisspeptin as RFAmide peptide

A

puberty hormone; producing neurons found in arcuate and anterioventral hypothalamus to project to medial pre optic area - the site of GnRH producing neurons

95
Q

puberty hormone

A

kisspeptin RFAmide peptide hormone

96
Q

GnIH

A

released from hypothalamus and has opposite effects of kisspeptin, inhibits GnRH

97
Q

pituitary

A

hypophysis = below brain

98
Q

hypophysis

A

pituitary

99
Q

anterior pituitary region

A

adenohypophysis has soft tissue origin from roof mouth; prods trophic hormones in response to hypothalamic hormones

100
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

neurohypophysis has neural origin; hypothalamic neurosecretory cells directly release hormone in here

101
Q

neurohypophysis

A

posterior pituitary with neural origin

102
Q

pituitary size

A

blueberry

103
Q

communication between hypothalamus and pituitary

A

portal system with closed blood circuit connecting capillary beds of hypothalamus to anterior pituitary releasing hormones.
1. Anterior: axon terminals of hypothalamic neurons release neurohormones near capillaries for portal vessels
2. anterior pituitary hormones leave gland via blood
1. Posterior: hypothalamic neurons produce vasopressin and oxytocin and transport them to posterior pituitary and diffuse into capillaries.

104
Q

anterior pituitary hormones

A

trophic factors protein hormones are releasing RH and inhibitory IH hormones from hypothalamus, small peptide hormones

105
Q

trophic factors

A

anterior pituitary protein hormones

106
Q

anterior pituitary hormone cells release:

A
  1. glycoproteins of carbohydrates include gonadotrophin LH, FSH, and TSH thyroid stimulating
  2. simple proteins: growth hormone GH and prolactin PL
  3. corticotrope cell products: ACTH derived from POMC giant precursor/hormone derivative
107
Q

POMC

A

pre-opiomelanocortin giant precursor to ACTH

108
Q

POMC derivatives

A

ACTH is most commonly known hormone derivative
other POMC products: lipotrophins and endogenous opioids that suppress pain like B-endorphin and Met-enkephalin

109
Q

endogenous opioids

A

Met-enkephalin and B-endorphin suppress pain under stress and are POMC products

110
Q

polypeptide and monoamine hormones typically…

A

bind to surface receptors on cell membrane

111
Q

pituitary is controlled by…

A

hypothalamus

112
Q

secreted by posterior pituitary gland

A

oxytocin and vasopressin

113
Q

released by anterior pituitary

A

LH, FSH, TSH, GH, ACTH, and prolactin

114
Q

regulated by hypothalamic stimulation

A

growth hormone, FSH, LH, and ACTH

115
Q

net effect of vasopressin actions

A

increase arterial blood pressure

116
Q

autocrine hormones feedback

A

to influence same kinds of cells that secreted them

117
Q

posterior pituitary actions

A

oxytocin and vasopressin (arginine vasopressin = antidiuretic hormone ADH)
in contrast in anterior pituitary, NO interior portal system

118
Q

vasopressin

A

arginine vasopressin = antidiuretic ADH hormone

119
Q

antidiuretic hormone ADH

A

arginine vasopressin released by posterior pituitary hypothalamus neurosecretory cells

120
Q

posterior pituitary secretions

A

oxytocin and vasopressin synthesizes in magnocellular neuron cell bodies of hypothalamus: supraoptic and paraventricular
neuroendocrine axons travel down infundibulum to posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) and can be releases as fast as neuronal impulse conducted

121
Q

posterior pituitary/neurohypophysis hormones synthesis

A

on magnocellular neuron cells bodies of hypothalamus
ADH and Oxy are nonapeptides = 9 amino acids
produced from 2 prohormones after packaging by Golgi bodies into prohormones + carrier proteins = neurophysins
- proxyphysin = oxytocin + neurophysiology 1
- propressophysin = AVP + neurophysiologies 2 + glycopeptide
binding to carrier protein increases half life

122
Q

neurophysins

A

prohormones + carrier proteins packaged in Golgi

123
Q

nonapeptides

A

oxytocin and ADH are 9 amino acids produced from 2 prohormones/neurophysins

124
Q

neurophysins carrier protein

A

binding increases half life of hormones by 10x

125
Q

oxytocin

A

released from posterior pituitary and important to enhance uterine contractions and for milk letdown reflex

126
Q

oxytocin for contractions

A

uterus only sensitive when oxytocin receptors are highly expressed
patterns of high estrogen + progesterone starting to FALL triggers increase in oxytocin receptor expression

127
Q

milk letdown reflex

A

mechanical stimulation of nipple and associative learning/enviro triggers oxytocin release

128
Q

oxytocin is NOT essential for

A

milk letdown, pair bonding, nursing pups
enhances

129
Q

voles lacking oxytocin receptors

A

still nurse pups and pair bond. oxytocin not required for social attachments

130
Q

effects of vasopressin ADH

A

increases arterial blood pressure through vasoconstriction V1R caused by IP3 signal transduction pathway or increase water retention in kidneys V2R

131
Q

increased arterial blood pressure

A

vasopressin released by posterior pituitary. 1. V1R vasoconstriction or 2. V2R by increase water retention of kidneys

132
Q

V1R vasoconstriction

A

input to hypothalamus, to posterior pituitary to release ADH to blood vessel constriction

133
Q

IP3 signal pathway

A

of ADH vasoconstriction; receptor binds hormone and activated G protein dissociates and activates phospholipase PLC to produce second messenger DAG and IP3 from PIP2. IP3 opens Ca2+ channels and with DAG, activate protein kinase C PKC to phosphorylate other enzymes

134
Q

V2R increase water retention

A

on renal collecting ducts to increase water permeability, a cAMP-dependent mechanism to decrease urine formation and antidiuretic
alcohol inhibits response

135
Q

cAMP pathway g-coupled

A

hormone binding receptor activates G protein and GTP replaces GDP and amplification ensues. GTP hydrolyzed

136
Q

thyroid gland

A

follicular tissue - sacs filled with colloid matrix

137
Q

thyroid hormones

A

hypothalamic thyrotropin releasing hormone TRH triggers anterior pituitary TSH release. Thyroid prods thyroid hormone in response to anterior pituitary thyroid stimulating hormones TSH
tyrosine is parent amino acid to thyroid hormones (fat soluble tyrosine dipeptides)
increase oxidation rates in tissues, enough stored for 90 days

138
Q

tyrosine

A

parent amino acid to thyroid hormones (fat soluble tyrosine dipeptides)

139
Q

most common endocrine feedback

A

negative feedback and inhibitor effect in self to decrease further release

140
Q
  • feedback example
A

hypothalamus releasing GnRH to anterior pituitary

141
Q

+ feedback example

A

oxytocin on uterus

142
Q

thyroid hormones from tyrosine

A

TSH works thru blood to thyroid gland to activate synthesis of thyroid hormones which increase oxidation rates in tissue, stored for 90 days, need carrier proteins in blood bc fat soluble
- thyroxine T4 most common dipeptide hormone converted to T3
- triiodothyronine T3 biologically active dipeptide hormone
- calcitonin - regulates blood calcium levels made by C cells found in interstitial space between follicles

143
Q

Thyroxine T4

A

most common thyroid hormone - tyrosine derived and dipeptide that is fat soluble requiring carrier protein

144
Q

triiodothyronine T3

A

biologically active thyroid hormone tyrosine derived

145
Q

calcitonin

A

thyroid hormone regulates blood calcium levels made by c cells between follicles

146
Q

effects of thyroid hormones T3 and T4

A
  1. metabolism: increase glucose metabolism to generate heat and adapt to changing temps
    in non-hibernating mammals T3 and T4 higher in winter
  2. growth and differentiation: growth promoting actions similar to growth hormone and cretinism: delayed neurological development and cognitive deficits rare since iodine
  3. reproduction: delayed sex maturation in hypothyroid mammals
147
Q

cretinism

A

effect of T3 T4 thyroid hormones cause delayed neurological development and cognitive deficits rare since iodine

148
Q

parathyroid gland and hormones

A

4 parathyroid glands embedded in thyroid gland to secrete parathyroid hormone PTH. PTH and calcitonin CT regulate calcium metabolism and both are protein hormones.

149
Q

PTH parathyroid protein hormones

A

protein hormones; remove Ca2+ from bone into blood with vitamin D3 it increases gut ca2+ absorption and inhibits phosphate reabsorption form kidney to increase levels of ca2+ in blood. CT opposes effects of PTH on Ca2+ and decreases ca2+ in blood by decreasing removal of ca2+ from bone.

150
Q

generalized steroid receptor function

A

steroid hormone receptors usually located in target cell nucleus or cytoplasm and steroid hormones bind to form hormone-receptor complex to move to nucleus. complex acts as transcription factor and binds to hormone response element HRE on DNA to begin transcription of mRNA

151
Q

hormone receptor complex

A

steroid hormones bind specific receptors and move to nucleus to act as transcription factor on hormone response element HRE on DNA

152
Q

gonadal hormones

A

GnRH gonadotrophin releasing hormone is peptide hormone from hypothalamus which activates anterior pituitary to release gonadotrophin like FSH and LH

153
Q

GnRH

A

peptide hormone from hypothalamus activates anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH gonadotrophins

154
Q

gonadotrophins

A

direct gonads to release steroid hormones that are derived from cholesterol which are fat soluble and easily cross lipid cell membranes. they are never stores and released as produced. delay from stimulus to response so signal is slow. need water soluble carrier proteins for blood transport and targets have receptors in nucleus or cytoplasm

155
Q

gonad function

A

gamete production of sperm/eggs and hormone production to regulate gamete prod and secondary sex characteristics and behaviors

156
Q

anatomy of testes

A

seminiferous tubules for maturation of sperm and spermatogenesis
Sertoli cells in basement membrane of seminiferous tubules where embedded sperm cells mature
leydig cells produce androgens in response to LH intestes

157
Q

leydig cells

A

produce androgens in response to LH in testes

158
Q

produce androgens in response to LH in testes

A

leydig cells

159
Q

androgens

A

C19 steroids
hypothalamus to stim anterior pituitary to release gonadotrophin GnRH to prod LH and FSH
adrenal cortex prods DHEA which decreases with age
androgens activate gonadal enzymes:
- testosterone produced in leydig cells
- 5a and 5b dihydrotestosterone
transported in blood by sex hormone binding globulin SHBG carrier protein made in liver

160
Q

secondary sex characteristics

A

body shape, body hair, muscular development, voice pitch and libido

161
Q

primary sex characteristics

A

internal organs and external genitalia that distinguish sexes

162
Q

C19 steroids

A

androgens

163
Q

androstenedione dehydroepiandrosterone

A

DHEA produced by adrenal cortex and decreases with age

164
Q

SHGB sex hormone binding globulin

A

carrier protein made in liver

165
Q

menstruation

A

gametes produced in monthly cycle. 3 phases of ovarian cycle: follicular, ovulation, luteal phase

166
Q

female gonadal hormones

A

ovaries produce gametes and hormones with cyclic changes. each ovary contains 500,000 immature follicles

167
Q

pre-ovulation

A

mature follicle has thecal and granulose cells that synthesize estrogens in response to FSH and LH as ovum matures an antrum forms around it and fills with liquor follicle containing steroids - mature tertiary follicle = Graafian - ovum erupts and travels into oviduct to uterus

168
Q

post-ovulation

A

follicle enlarges to form luteal cells to combine with thecal cells to form corpus luteum = becomes vascularized and secretes progestins - degenerates into corpus albacans

169
Q

follicular phase

A

LH receptors appear on theca internal cells. thecal cells prod androgens from cholesterol.
granular cells develop FSH receptors and when stimulated convert androgens into estrogens
at time of ovulation stimulation of granular cells triggers production of progesterone

170
Q

luteal phase

A

after ovulation, corpus luteum prods progesterone and some estrogen. progesterone increases in luteal phase to thicken uterus lining

171
Q

increase in progesterone and thickening uterus lining

A

luteal phase

neuro 2 (5 decks)

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