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z PP1: Intro Physiology > Endocrine System Exam 2 > Flashcards

Endocrine System Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine System:
Mediator Molecules
Site of Action
Type of target cell
Time/Duration

A

Mediator Molecules: Hormones in blood
Site of Action: Far, bind to receptors on organs or tissues
Type of target cell: many cells
Time/Duration: seconds to days, long

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2
Q

Endocrine glands release hormones into interstitial fluid and blood. What are the two types of hormones

A

Circulating, local

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3
Q

Circulating Hormones

A

Secrete into interstitial fluid
Diffuse to blood vessels and circulate
Bind to receptors
Inactivated by liver, excreted by kidney

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4
Q

Local Hormones (Autocrine and Paracrine)

A

Autocrine: Secreted into extracellular fluid (don’t enter blood)
Hormones act on same cell

Paracrine: Secreted into extracellular fluid (no blood)
Short distance

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5
Q

Hormones response depends on what two things

A

Hormone type
Target Cell

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6
Q

What are the two types of Water Soluble Hormones

A

Amine: synthesized by modifying A.A. (E, NE, Tryp)
Peptide: Synthesized by large molecules than final hormone (oxytocin, vasopressin)

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7
Q

Water Soluble Hormones functions

A

Stored in vesicles
Stimuli cells cause exocytosis release
Bind to receptors on surface of target
Hydrophobic: needs indirect GCPR

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8
Q

Three receptors for water-soluble hormones

A

Single transmembrane protein (EGFR)
Dimer Membrane (insulin)
Seven-transmembrane protein (GCPR *Gs alpha)

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9
Q

GCPR enzymes and channels types and second messengers

A

Enzyme
Adenylate Cyclase: cAMP
Phospholipase C: IP3, DAG, Calcium

Channels
Ion Channel: Ion

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10
Q

How do you inhibit adenylate cyclase

A

Gi alpha subunit, blocks activation, decrease cAMP, decrease phosphorylation

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11
Q

How do you inhibit cAMP signaling

A

Phosphodiesterase, clips bond to make AMP

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12
Q

Phospholipase C - Inositol Phosphate System

A

Hormone binds
alpha q subunit dissociates
activates phospholipase C -> two second messengers
Diacylglycerol and IP3(Calcium released)
(like indirect GCPR)

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13
Q

Mechanism of Phospholipase C

A

Phospholipase C:
IP3 binds to Ca2+ channel in ER
Releases Ca2+ from ER into cytoplasm

Either:
-Calcium used for muscle contractions
-PKC binds to DAG (activated) then PKC phosphorylates substrates producing an effect

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14
Q

Opening of Ca2+ channels and opening of K+ channels

A

Calcium:
binding alpha subunit, Ca2+ released from ER, combines with calmodulin activates protein kinase

Potassium:
beta gamma subunits, open K+ channel, K+ leaves, hyperpolarize cells

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15
Q

Tyrosine Kinase Receptor Mechanism (water soluble)

A

Hormone Binding
Dimerization
Tyrosine Kinase (TK) activated
TK auto-phosphorylates tyr receptors -> fully activated
Proteins are either activated or inactivated

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16
Q

Types of Lipid-Soluble Hormones

A

Steroids: synthesized from cholesterol (testosterone, estrogen)
Thyroid Hormone: Iodine to tyrosine synthesis (T3, T4)

*Bind to receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus

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17
Q

Transport and Excretion of Lipid-Soluble Hormones

A

Circulate bound to transport protein making them water soluble
Produce longterm effects
Excreted by liver or kidney

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18
Q

Lipid-Soluble Hormone Mechanism

A

Hormone diffuses into cytoplasm
Bind to receptors in cytosol or nucleus
Receptor complex interacts with DNA increasing synthesis of mRNA
mRNA in ribosomes synthesize new proteins
Proteins produce response of the cell to the hormone

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19
Q

A decrease in the total number of target-cell receptors for a given messenger is referred to as receptor ______ ________

A

down regulation

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20
Q

What are the two parts of the pituitary gland

A

Anterior - Adenohypophysis
Posterior - Neurohypophysis (non-myelinated)

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21
Q

Does the pituitary gland make the hormones it moves

A

No, the hypothalamus does

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22
Q

Hormones are stored in vesicles of cell bodies to be transmitted. What are the two nuclei in the hypothalamus that synthesize these hormones

A

Paraventricular and Supraoptic

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23
Q

Hypothalamic Regulation of Posterior Pituitary

A

Stimuli increase or decrease action potential
AP is carried by axons from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary
AP releases hormones from axon terminals into circulatory (volt Ca2+)
Hormones pass through circulatory system and influence targets

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24
Q

What are the two polypeptide hormones synthesized in the posterior pituitary

A

Oxytocin - Paraventricular
Antidiuretic (Vasipressin) - Supraoptic

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25
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
effect
target
receptor

A

effect: promotes water retention and increases blood pressure

target:
kidneys -> water retention, decrease urine volume
Sweat glands -> decrease water loss by perspiration
Blood Vessels -> vasoconstriction

receptor: V1 and V2 in different tissues

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26
Q

Water effects of ADH in kidneys

A

-Water moves through aquaporins
-Increase synthesis and membrane insertion of water channels
increase number of channels, increase channel activity

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27
Q

Mechanism of ADH in kidneys

A

ADH binds to V2 vasopressin receptor
Activates Adenylyl Cyclase in renal cells
increases cAMP and activation of PKA

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28
Q

ADH effects on blood vessels and sweat glands

A

Blood vessels:
-ADH causes constriction ->increase vascular resistance and blood pressure
-Mediated by V1 receptors (GCPR Phospholipase C) on smooth muscle cells
**muscle contraction need Ca2+ (GCPR) to help constrict muscles

Sweat Glands:
decrease water lost by perspiration

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29
Q

Control of ADH release by osmoreceptors and baroreceptors

A

Osmoreceptors: (in hypothalamus)
-Respond to change in Na+ (plasma concentration)
-Decrease blood volume, increase osmolality, increase ADH release

Baroreceptors: (in aortic arch carotid sinus)
-Respond to changes in blood pressure -> stretching arterial wall
-Increase blood volume, increase blood pressure, increase wall stretching, decrease ADH release

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30
Q

ADH secretion pathway for high and low blood pressure

A

High blood pressure
-Activate cells to release ADH
-Nerve impulses take ADH from the axon terminal into bloodstream
-kidneys more water, less sweat, arterioles constrict

Low Blood Pressure
-Inhibits hypothalamic osmoreceptors
-Reduces or stops ADH secretion

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31
Q

Oxytocin
Hormone type
Mechanism
Target Tissue

A

Cyclic peptide hormone - paraventricular
Mechanism: GPCR receptor -> activate phospholipase C
Target: In pregnancy -> uterus and breasts

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32
Q

Oxytocin effects in pregnant women’s uterus and breasts

A

Uterus: enhances muscle contraction, Pitcoin (oxytocin injection), helps labor induce by adding K+ causing contraction

Breast: stimulated milk ejection “let down” milk secreted from alveolar cells to nipple

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33
Q

Oxytocin Feedback Mechanism for breast milk

A

Positive feedback loop
Released during lactation to stimulate milk ejection
Baby sucks and signal send to hypothalamus
Oxytocin made -> milk ejection

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34
Q

What are the five types of anterior pituitary cells

A

somatotropes
corticotropes
thyrotropes
lactotropes
gonadotropes

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35
Q

What are trophic hormones

A

They stimulate the release of other hormones in a receptor-mediated and tissue-specific manner (TSH and ACTH)

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36
Q

Hypothalamic Regulation of the Anterior Pituitary

A

Stimulus

Increased hypothalamus 1 secretion
Increase plasma hormone 1 (portal vessels)

Anterior Pituitary 2 secretion
Increase plasma hormone 2 -> target cells of hormone 2

Third Endocrine Gland, increase hormone secretion 3
Increase plasma hormone 3 -> target cells of hormone 3

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37
Q

Somatotropes:
hormone, location, effect

A

Growth hormone (GH)

Liver -> secrete IGF-1
Other organs and tissues -> protein synthesis, carb/lipid metabolism

GRH -> growth release
GIH -> growth inhibit

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38
Q

Corticotropes
hormone, location, effect

A

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) - skin pigment

Adrenal Cortex (two hormone) -> secretes cortisol

CRH -> corticotrophin release

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39
Q

Thyrothrophes
hormone, location, effect

A

Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH)

Thyroid (two hormone) -> secretes thyroxine, triiodothyronine

TRH -> thyrotropin release

40
Q

Lactotrophes
hormone, location, effect

A

Prolactin

Breast -> breast development and milk production

PRH -> prolactin release
PIH -> prolactin inhibit

41
Q

Gonadatrophes
hormone, location, effect

A

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
luteinizing hormone (LH)

Gonads -> germ cell development, secrete male/female hormones

GnRH -> gonadotrophin releasing

42
Q

What are the mechanisms of the releasing and inhibiting pathways

A

Only releasing hormones: (GnRH, TRH, CRH)
Negative feedback loop -> not enough hormones, increase to produce

Inhibit and Release: (PRH/PIH, GRH/GIH)
Increase effect -> decrease inhibit, increase release
Decrease effect -> increase inhibit, decrease release

43
Q

The thyroid gland has two lobes connected by the isthmus, what are the two hormones it produces

A

Thyroid Hormones
Calcitonin (calcium homeostasis)

44
Q

What is the central cavity that the follicular cells surround called

A

colloid (glycoproteins)

45
Q

What do follicular and parafollicular cells produce

A

Follicular: glycoproteins thyroglobulin and secrete thyroid hormone
Parafollicular (aka C cells): calcitonin

46
Q

What is the difference between T3 and T4 and what two things are needed for synthesis done in the follicles

A

T3 has 3 iodine, T4 has 4 iodine
Need: Tyrosines from TGB and Iodide by diet

47
Q

Thyroid mechanism steps 1-2

A

1: Synthesis
TGB synthesized and packed in vesicles in follicle cells, TGB into colloid

2: Iodine Trapping
I2 absorbed and ionized into I− in gut, actively transported with Na+ from blood to follicle cells

48
Q

Thyroid mechanism steps 3-4

A

3: Iodide Oxidation
Iodide transported into lumen of follicle, I- to I2 by TPE (Thyroid Peroxidase Enzyme) and transported to colloid

4: Tyrosine Iodination
Thyroid peroxidase links iodine to tyrosine in thyroglobulin –> T1, T2 made

49
Q

Thyroid mechanism steps 5-6

A

5: Coupling of T1 and T2
Thyroid peroxidase links MIT and DIT to generate T3 and T4 -> collects in the colloid apart of TGB

6: Thyroglobulin Endocytosis
TGB w/ T3 and T4 brought into cells in vesicles that fuze with lysosomes -> breaks down to release the T3 and T4, I- can be reused

50
Q

Thyroid mechanism steps 7-8

A

7: Secretion of T3 and T4
They diffuse into interstitial fluid and brought into blood (T4 more)

8: Transport of T3 and T4
T3 and T4 brought into proteins, Thyroid Binding Globulin bind 75% hormones, Transthyretin and albumin bind remaining hormones (free hormones are active, T3 mainly)

51
Q

Effects of thyroid hormones

A

Basal Metabolism (proteins, lipid, carbs)
Body Temperature
Tissue Growth
Catecholamines

52
Q

Actions of T3 and T4 on metabolism

A

Increase glucose in the blood
liver synthesis
intestine absorption
use in muscles

53
Q

T3 and T4 effects on lipid metabolism

A

-Decrease lipid synthesis
-Increase Lipolysis -> degrade TG produce fatty acids, increase fatty acid in plasma, increase beta-oxidation of FA in liver
-Plasma cholesterol is decreased

54
Q

Effect of thyroid hormone on growth

A

-T3 is needed for growth hormone production -> muscle growth, bones
-T3 promotes nervous system development and functions -> myelination, synapse development
-T3 promotes reproductive system development and function -> puberty onset

55
Q

Effect of thyroid hormone on catecholamines

A

-T3 upregulates beta-adrenergic receptors in tissues (heart/nervous system)
-Excess T3 potentiate action of catecholamines (increase heart rate)

56
Q

T3 and T4 metabolism

A

Deionization main for peripheral metabolism
-D1 and D2 maintain formation of T3 from T4
-D3 -> reverse T3
Degradation and excretion by liver

57
Q

Mechanism of Thyroid Action (Lipid Soluble)

A

-Hormones dissociate from proteins and leave blood
-Hormones enter cell by diffusion or transport
-T4 converted to T3 by deiodinases
-T3 enters nucleus bind to receptor
-Regulates gene expression

58
Q

Hypothyroidism effects

A

Not enough hormones
-Tiredness
-Cold
-Dry skin
-Weight gain
-Fatigue

59
Q

Hashimoto’s Disease

A

Destroy thyroid gland
Circulating antibodies against thyroid peroxidase
Goiter -> large thryoid

60
Q

Hyperthyroidism effects

A

Too many hormones
-Hot
-Lose Weight
-Sweating
-Tremor

61
Q

Grave’s Disease

A

Autoimmune Disease
-Circulating antibodies against TSH receptor
-Exophthalmos -> bulging eyeballs

62
Q

The pancreas is both endocrine and exocrine gland. What is the main function of the endocrine pancreas

A

maintain normal blood glucose levels

63
Q

What are the cells of the pancreas

A

Pancreatic Islets
Endocrine cells
-Alpha cells (glucagon) increase blood glucose
-Beta Cells (insulin) decrease blood glucose
-Delta Cells (somatostatin) inhibit hormone secretion
-PP/F Cells (pancreatic polypeptide) pancreatic secretion

64
Q

Glycemia mechanism

A

maintenance of glucose homeostasis is glucose tolerance
(low glucose -> glucagon release)
(high glucose -> insulin release)

65
Q

Synthesis and processing of insulin

A
  1. Synthesized as preproinsulin in beta cells
  2. Processed in ER to proinsulin by removing peptide (A and B chain by disulfide bonds)
  3. Prolinsulin stored in secretory granules in beta cells
  4. Processed into insulin and C peptide
  5. C peptide have no activity
66
Q

Beta Cells at Rest

A

Beta cells are hyperpolarized -> inhibition of insulin exocytosis
1. Low glucose in blood
2. Metabolism slows
3. No ATP
4. ATP-K+ channel is open

67
Q

Beta Cells activated in insulin

A
  1. High level of glucose in blood
  2. Increased glycolysis
  3. High ATP
  4. ATP-K+ closed
  5. Less K+ leaves cells
  6. Cell Depolarizes
  7. Ca2+ channel open
  8. Ca2+ activates and moves vesicles for exocytosis
68
Q

Activation of Insulin Receptor

A

Binding of insulin to receptor
Phosphorylation of receptor -> Tyrosine Kinase active
Phosphorylation of signal molecules -> many effects -> glucose uptake

69
Q

Effects of insulin carbohydrate metabolism in liver, muscle, adipose tissue

A

↓ Gluconeogenesis (inhibit enzyme)
↑ Glycolysis (degrade glucose into lactate)
↑ Glycogen Synthesis
↓ Glycogenolysis (breakdown glucose)

70
Q

Effects of insulin lipid metabolism in liver and adipose tissue

A

↑ Lipogenesis (build fats)
↓ Lipolysis (break fats)

71
Q

Effects of insulin protein metabolism in muscle

A

↑ Amino Acid uptake
↑ Protein synthesis
↓ Protein degradation

72
Q

Incretins in insulin secretion

A

Incretins are intestinal hormones secreted from L cells in small intestine to circulation

Pancreas: ↑ insulin secretion, ↓ glucagon
GI Track: ↓ gastric empty
Brain: ↓ food intake

73
Q

What are the two glucagon pathways

A

Pancreatic alpha cells -> get glucagon
Intestine L-cells -> Incretins (GLP1 and GLP2)

74
Q

Mechanism of Action of Glucagon

A

Glucagon binds to glucagon receptor (GCPR)
Stimulation of adenylate cyclase
cAMP used
Phosphorylation activates enzymes for glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis

75
Q

Effects of glucagon in liver, muscle, adipose tissue

A

Opposite of insulin

76
Q

Somatostatin

A

Inhibitor of growth hormone release
*Released by delta cells in the pancreas in response to:
-increase in blood glucose and blood amino acids
Paracrine: can inhibit both insulin and glucagon release

77
Q

Hypoglycemia; treatments, symptoms

A

most common adverse effect of insulin treatment
could lead to coma

Treatment
- Conscious Patient -> glucose gel, sugar tablet
- Unconscious Patient -> IV glucose, hospital

Symptoms
-Angry
-Shake
-Fast Heartbeat

78
Q

Gestational diabetes is triggered during

A

pregnancy

79
Q

Type 1 diabetes

A

Destruction of beta cells
When caught 80% of cells are destroyed leading to hyperglycemia
Increased Glucose Levels in blood
Need injections of insulin

80
Q

Type 2 diabetes

A

Tissues do not respond well to insulin
↓ Glucose use by cells -> increased blood glucose
Metabolic syndrome

Symptoms:
tired
hungry
tingling of hands and feet
polyuria (peeing)

81
Q

What are parathyroid glands and parathyroid hormone

A

Gland: 4 glands in posterior surface of thyroid
Hormone: Made by chief (principle) cells -> increases calcium in blood

-Have to do with calcium homeostasis

82
Q

In the thyroid gland where is calcitonin made and what does it do

A

Made in parafollicular cells
Decreases calcium in blood

83
Q

If calcium is level is too high what does the thyroid gland do

A

Bones: increase uptake
Intestine: decrease uptake
Urine: decrease uptake

84
Q

What are the two complexes on the adrenal gland

A

Adrenal cortex (outside) 80-90% of total
Adrenal Medulla (inside)

85
Q

What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex and what are the hormones they each release

A

Zona Glomerulosa -> Aldosterone (mineralocorticiods)
Zona Fasciculata -> Cortisol (glucocorticiods)
Zona Reticularis -> Androgens (sex hormone)

86
Q

Mineralocorticoids: major hormone and which system

A

Hormone: aldosterone
System: RAAS -> regulation of blood pressure

87
Q

Main molecules of RAAS

A

Renin -> proteolytic enzyme released by kidney
Angiotensin II -> Active molecule
Aldosterone -> final hormone

88
Q

What is the secretion of aldosterone stimulated by

A

decrease blood volume
decrease blood pressure
low blood Na+

89
Q

Angiotensin II can activate the release of ___________ from the pituitary

A

vasopressin

90
Q

Aldosterone mechanism of action (Lipid Soluble)

A

-Binds to mineralocorticoid receptors in the cytoplasm
-Receptor activates transcription in nucleus
-Protein channels and pumps made
-Aldosterone proteins modify proteins
-Increase Na+ absorption and K+ secretion

91
Q

Glucocorticoids and cortisol effects: hormone, target

A

Glucose metabolism
Cortisol produced by cortex

Stress hormone: increased release by ACTH
Target: Liver, muscle, adipose tissue

92
Q

Cortisol Action: Metabolic and Immune system

A

Metabolic:
↑ Glucose synthesis (meals and stress)
↑ Lipolysis (energy)

Immune system:
-Anti-inflammatory -> inhibits white blood cells, inhibits production of inflammatory molecules
-Immunosuppression -> organ transplant

93
Q

Cortisol Action: GI tract and Cardiovascular system

A

GI tract: Stimulation of gastric acid secretion

Cardiovascular system: ↑ Blood pressure by ↑ sensitivity of vasculature to E and NE

94
Q

What kind of receptor is glucocorticoids

A

Lipid: intracellular receptor -> gene expression

95
Q

Gonadocorticoids

A

Secreted molecules called androgens *testosterone
Androgens: onset puberty, sex characteristics, sex drive in females

96
Q

Hormones in Adrenal Medulla

A

Synthesized by chromaffin cells
E - 80% NE - 20%
Innervated by cholinergic preganglionic neurons

97
Q

Catecholamine Actions

A

E and NE fight or flight -> stress
Adrenergic receptors
Blood pressure and fuels metabolism

z PP1: Intro Physiology (10 decks)

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