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Endocrine system (Chapter 17) Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the endocrine system

A

on of the two major communication systems of the body

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2
Q

how does the nervous system communicate

A

via transmitters realeased by neurons

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3
Q

how does the endocrine system communicate

A

via hormones released by particular cells into the bloodstream

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4
Q

what are the nervous and endocrine system both key components of?

A

homeostasis

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5
Q

how does the nervous system respond to stimuli in the environment

A

through various receptors (such as those for pain, temperature, pH, pressure)
neurotransmitters target other neurons, muscle cells (skeletal, smooth, or cardiac), or glands (including adrenal and salivary glands)

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6
Q

what is the nervous system response time from stimulus to target cells

A

extremely rapid and only lasts for a brief period of time

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7
Q

what do the many glands that the endocrine system involves produce

A

hormones that can target any cell type in the body

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8
Q

how is the hormone response in the endocrine system (speed)

A

its initiated more slowly than the nervous system response, but the effects last much longer.

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9
Q

why is it essential that the endocrine system and the nervous system cooperate?

A

to ensure proper reactions to changes in the external environment

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10
Q

what are the major endocrine glands of the body

A
  • hypothalamus
  • pituitary gland
  • pineal gland
  • thyroid and parathyroid glands
  • thymus
  • pancreas
  • adrenal glands
  • testes
  • ovaries
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11
Q

what do endocrine glands release

A

hormones directly into the bloodstream

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12
Q

what do exocrine glands release

A

substances (enzymes, swear, oil, mucus) through a duct to an epithelial surface or cavity

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13
Q

functions of hormones

A

depending on the cell type that they bond to theres different functions HOWEVER these are the general funtions
- homeostatic regulation of blood sugar levels, water balance, blood, calcium levels, blood pressure, thirst, hunger, blood cell production, regulating other hormones in the blood.
- growth, metabolism, energy production
- reproductive functions (lactation, childbirth, development of sperm and eggs)
- stress response
- regulation of digestion
- regulation of circadian rhythms such as sleep-wake cycles

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14
Q

what regulates the pituitary gland

A

hypothalamus

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15
Q

for hormones to exert and effect what must they do

A

bind to a specific receptor either on the cell membrane or inside the target cell

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16
Q

what is insulin

A

a hormone that is secreted by the pancreas to lower blood sugar after a meal

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17
Q

all hormones initaiate a signaling pathway that does what

A

either directly or indirectly affects transcription and translation of a gene or multiple genes

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18
Q

where does insulin bind

A

to very specific receptors on all cells to initiate the transcription and translation of the glucose-transporter protein which the embeds into cell membranes so glucose can enter the cells

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19
Q

two categories of hormones

A

water soluble and fat soluble

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20
Q

water- soluble hormones

A

polar hormones that act by binding to a receptor on a cell membrane rather then inside the cell.

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21
Q

what can water-soluble hormones not do

A

they cant diffuse across membranes, so the specific receptor is located on the extracellular side of the membrane: only on cells that the hormone is meant to target.

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22
Q

how do water soluble hormones elicit their response

A

indirectly through a messenger system. A second messenger relays a signal from the membrane receptor to a target molecule inside the cell, and this alters the activity of the cell.

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23
Q

fat soluble hormone

A

non-polar hormones that can move into a target cell and bind to a receptor that affects gene expression.

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24
Q

how do fat soluble hormones bind to their receptor

A

they easily cross the cell membranes to bind to their receptor inside the cell, and usually the receptors directly affect transcription and function as transcription factors.

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25
Q

what are transcription factors (meaning)

A

factors that promote or inhibit the transcription of RNA in a eurkoratyic cell

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26
Q

what are water coluble hormones (chemical make up)

A

modified amino acids, small peptides, or proteins.

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27
Q

what are water soluble hormones (5)

A
  • Catecholamines: dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
  • Pancreas: insulin, glucagon
  • Pituitary hormones
  • Hypothalamus hormones
  • Parathyroid hormone
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28
Q

what are the fat soluble hormones (2 types)

A
  • Thyroid hormones: (T3, T4).
  • Steroids (from cholesterol): cortisol, aldosterone, androgens (testosterone,
    DHEA, estrogen, progesterone, calcitriol (active form of Vit D3)
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29
Q

what are water soluble hormones are peptides/ proteins

A
  • Pancreas: insulin, glucagon
  • Pituitary hormones
  • Hypothalamus hormones
  • Parathyroid hormone
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30
Q

what hormones are modified from tyrosine (amines)

A

thyroid hormones (fat soluble) and catecholamines (water soluble)

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31
Q

how are water soluble hormones released into circulation

A

gland cells package them into vesicles then release them into circulation by exocytosis

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32
Q

how are steroids released

A

by diffusion into extracellular fluid as soon as they are made

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33
Q

how are steroids and thyroid hormones transported

A

through the blood on the plasma protein albumin

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34
Q

can you buy inactive D3 to use for your body when needed

A

yes

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35
Q

what is the conrtol center of the brain

A

hypothalamus

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36
Q

what system is the hypothalamus a part of

A

the nervous system
and the endocrine system

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37
Q

how are they hypothalamus and pituitary connected

A

by the infundibulum, containing neurons and blood vessels

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38
Q

what is behind the hypothalamus and what does it produce?

A

pineal gland is behind the hypothalamus and it produces the hormone melatonin

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39
Q

what does melatonin do

A

induces sleep

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40
Q

what does the posterior pituitary store

A

hormones made by the hypothalamus

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41
Q

what hormones are made by the hypothalamus

A

oxytocin and ADH

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42
Q

what does the anterior pituitary make

A

hormones when stimualted by hypothalamus hormones

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43
Q

what is the direct blood connection between the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

A

portal veins

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44
Q

how are hormones made in the hypothalamus and where are they stored

A

made by axon bodies, stored in terminals of the posterior pituitary

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45
Q

Oxytocin

A

involved in uterine contractions (positive feedback loop), milk, erection ejection, emotional bonding, love, empathy, feelings of social connection

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46
Q

another name for Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

vasopressin

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47
Q

what is Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

causes kidneys to reabsorb water and causes vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure when blood volume is low

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48
Q

what increases water excretion from the kidneys

A

a diuretic

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49
Q

what is growth hormone also called

A

somatotropin

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50
Q

what is the growth hormone stimulated by

A

deep sleep, high intensity exercise, periods of increased androgen production (growth spirts during childhood and puberty)

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51
Q

where is the growth hormone released

A

from the anterior pituitary gland in response to GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) produced by the hypothalamus

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52
Q

how much growth hormone is made in kids uposed to adults

A

2x more but still important for adults to maintain cell devision and to replace old or damaged cells

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53
Q

functions of growth hormones

A
  • Promoting bone growth (height) in children and adolescents. GH causes calcium to be incorporated into bones, and decreases osteoporosis in adults.
  • Stimulating protein synthesis. This occurs particularly in skeletal muscle where protein is required to increase muscle strength.
  • Aiding metabolism. GH causes the liver to break down glycogen and fat and thereby increases the level of blood sugar so fuel is available for cells.
  • Stimulating the immune system. Stress hormones inhibit growth hormone and inhibit the immune system.
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54
Q

what is it called when to much GH is produced during childhood

A

gigantism

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55
Q

what is it called when too much GH is produced after puberty

A

acromegaly

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56
Q

what is it called when to little GH production occurs

A

dwarfism

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57
Q

what do insulin like factors (IGF) stimulate

A

like GH, IGF stimulates cell devision, promotes bone growth, promotes protein synthesis mostly in muscle, break dow fats or energy and decrease the effects of insulin

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58
Q

what is required for synthesis of growth hormone

A

thyroid hormones

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59
Q

what simulates nutrient uptake, and inhibits protein break down

A

insulin

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60
Q

what do sex hormone (estrogen and testosterone) stimulate

A

GH and IGH, and protein synthesis

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61
Q

what does cortisol inhibit

A

growth

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62
Q

what is a mitogen

A

a molecule that stimulates cell devision

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63
Q

what is the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) also known as

A

thyrotropin

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64
Q

what is the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) released in response of

A

the secretion of thyrotropin- releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus

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65
Q

what does TSH act on

A

the thyroid gland causing it to release T3 and T4 (thyroid hormones)

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66
Q

what is TSH regulated through

A

negative feedback
- low T3 and T4 in blood = TRH release = TSH release = T3 and T4 to increase
- high T3 and T4 in blood = inhibits TRH and inhibits TSH = T3 and T4 to decrease

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67
Q

what is refered to as the good mood molecule

A

serotonin

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68
Q

what is Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) released in response of

A

the secretion of corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus

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69
Q

where does ACTH act

A

on the adrenal cortex (top of kidneys)

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70
Q

what does ACTH regulate

A

glucocorticoid production, mainly cortisol, in response to stress

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71
Q

where does ACTH cause cortisol production from cholesterol

A

by the zona fasciculata region of the adrenal cortex

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72
Q

what are FSH and LH released in response of

A

gonadotropin- releaseing hormone (GnRH)

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73
Q

FSH

A

the primary hormone that stimulates sperm development in the testes and oocyte development in the ovaries

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74
Q

LH

A

stimulates gonads to produce testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone (LH is a tropic hormone) stimulates ovulation

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75
Q

what do males and females secrete (sex hormones)

A

testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone.

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76
Q

what enzyme do females have much more of and why

A

aromatase enzyme becasue it converts testosterone into estrogen

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77
Q

what is prolactin released in response of

A

released in response to the secretion of prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) from the hypothalamus, inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)1

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78
Q

what does prolactin stimulate

A

the growth of mammary glands during pregnancy, and the productions of milk (lactation) after birth

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79
Q

what does prolactin play a role in

A

fetal lung surfactant production production at the end of pregnancy, and helps the mothers immune system not reject the infant

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80
Q

is prolactin produced in men

A

yes but only at low levels

81
Q

what is a tropic hormone

A

a hormone that affects another hormone

82
Q

where is the thyroid gland located

A

below layrnx, secretes T3, T4, and calcitronin

83
Q

the thyriod hormone is stimulated by TSH to produce what

A

T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) in follicular cells

84
Q

thyroid hormone synthesis requires what

A

iodine

85
Q

what is the main role of the thyroid hormones

A

to regulate metabolism: increases cells oxygen use, break down fats and glycogen (glucose) to make ATP.

86
Q

how many iodine atom does T3 conatin

A

3

87
Q

how many iodine atoms does T4 contain

A

4

88
Q

what do most cells do to T4

A

convert it to T3 which is more active (requires selenium)

89
Q

what is selenium

A

a very important micronutrient required for thyroid hormone synthesis, and selenium deficiency can cause severe thyroid malfunction

90
Q

what are the main functions of the thyroid hormones

A
  • Regulating oxygen use by all cells during cellular respiration
  • Increasing basal metabolic rate (BMR) by increasing the production of ATP from glycogen and fats
  • Increasing the synergistic effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine in the breakdown of glycogen and fat for energy production
  • Stimulating the production of growth hormone, especially important during fetal development
  • Increasing heart rate, breathing rate, and cardiac output so that more oxygen can be delivered to cells
91
Q

High TSH increases what and stimulates what

A

increases thyroid hormone production and stimulates thyriod gland to grow (hypertrophy)

92
Q

whats an enlarged thyroid gland called

A

goiter

93
Q

what is Hashimontos disease

A

autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the thyroid hormone- producing cells, causing T3 and T4 decrease (hypothyroidism), causes increases TSH and goiter because T3 and T4 will never increase

94
Q

What is Graves disease

A

an autoimmune disease where antibodies bind to TSH receptors activating them, and constantly stimulate the thyroid and secretion of T3 and T4 results in hyperthyroidism and goiter because TSH receptor is always.

95
Q

what is hypothyroidism

A

low thyroid hormones

96
Q

what is hyperthyroidism

A

excessive thyriod hormones

97
Q

what do hyperthyriodism and hypothydroism

A

goiters

98
Q

the appearance of an individual with graves disease experiencing exophthalmos

A

(experiencing exophthalmos) protruding eyes and goiter (buldge in neck from enlarged thryroid)

99
Q

hypothyroidism is a condition caused by what

A

insufficient production of thyroid hormones.

100
Q

what are people with hypothyoidism are not able to utilize

A

nutrients to produce energy, and so they feel very tired, have low energy, often gain weight, feel cold (since body heat is produced when ATP is produced), often have dry skin and brittle nails, and sometimes experience depression.

101
Q

what does a lack of seritonin lead to

A

depression

102
Q

what is the most common cause of hymothyroidism

A

iodine deficiency, selenium deficiency, any malfunction of the hypothalamus or anterior pituitary gland, extreme stress, and anorexia.

103
Q

what is hyperthyroidism

A

a condition caused by excessive production of thyroid hormones.

104
Q

how do people with hyperthyroidism feel

A

nervous, irritable, hot; have increased heart rate and difficulty sleeping; usually have weight loss; and sometimes have protruding eyes

105
Q

thyroid hormones increase the effect of what

A

catecholamines (dompamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine)

106
Q

caclitonin is secreted by

A

parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland

107
Q

the main function of calcitonin

A

prevent calcium (Ca2+) blood levels from being too high; it balances the effects of parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium levels.

108
Q

what are osteoclasts

A

Osteoclasts are the bone cells that break down the mineral matrix and release stored calcium and phosphate into the blood

109
Q

the two major hormones increase plasma calcium concentration

A
    • parathyroid hormone
  • vitamine D (active form) causes small intestine to increase calcium uptake
110
Q

what is the parathyroid hormone (PTH) secreted by

A

the parathyroid glands (4 posterior of thyroid)

111
Q

PTH is the bodies main regulation of what

A

calcium, and works to increase bloos calcium

112
Q

functions of the PTH (parathyroid hormone)

A
  • Stimulating osteoclasts to release calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream
  • Stimulating kidney cells to increase reabsorption of Ca2+ and Mg2+
  • Increasing the excretion of PO43– by the kidneys
  • Increasing the production of active vitamin D (calcitriol) by the kidneys, which then increases the absorption of calcium in the small intestines
113
Q

what is the PTH release stimulated by

A

low blood calcium concentrations and inhibited by high concentrations

114
Q

chronic Ca2+ deficiency can lead to what

A

hypersecretion of PTH, bone demineralization and osteoporosis

115
Q

what is rickets (in children) and osteomalacia (in adults)

A

bone matrix mineralization is defiecient, causing sofe and easily fractured bones

116
Q

what a major casue of rickets and osteomalacia

A

vitamin D deficiency

117
Q

what is osteoporosis

A

results from an imbalance between bone resorption and formation; causes decreased bone mass and strength, increase of fractures

118
Q

treatment for osteoporosis

A

focuses mainly on prevention and maintinance: dietary calcium, vitamin D, exrsice, bisphophonates (inhibit bone resorption)

119
Q

who get osteroporosis

A

immobolized people, elderly, particularily females during menopause because decreased estrogen

120
Q

adrenal glands are located where

A

one above each kidney

121
Q

what do adrenal glands consist of

A

outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla

122
Q

how many zones are in the adrenal cortex

A
  • outer zona glomerulosa (mineralocorticoids, eg. aldosterone)
  • middle zona fasciculata (glucocorticoids, e.g cortisol)
  • inner zona reticularis (androgens eg DHEA)
123
Q

all adrenal cortex hormones are what

A

steroids

124
Q

what is the adrenal medulla controlled by

A

autonomic nervous system and stimulation from sympathetic preganglionic neurons causes the medulla to secrete epinephrine and a small amount of norepinephrine

125
Q

does the adrenal medulla make more epinephrine or norepinephrine

A

a lot more epinephrine

126
Q

when epinephrine is released from neurons they are called

A

neurotransmitters

127
Q

do neurons release more epinephrine or norepinephrine

A

norepinephrine

128
Q

aldosterone

A

main mineralocorticoid made by the cortex

129
Q

aldosterone is made from

A

cholesterol in the zona glomerulosa

130
Q

when is aldosterone produced

A

when blood pressure is low

131
Q

main function of aldosterone

A

signaling kidney to reabsorb sodium in distal tubule and collecting ducts

132
Q

aldosterone signals what

A

nephrons to secrete potassium ions

133
Q

cortisol

A

main glucocorticoid produced in the cortex in response to ACTH from pituitary

134
Q

crotisol is made from what

A

cholesterol in the zona fasciculata

135
Q

cortisol has a daily what

A

cycle and increases during short or long term stress

136
Q

potentiates action of epinephrine and norepinephrine causes what

A

vasoconstriction

137
Q

cortisol helps break down what

A

nutrients to increase blood sugar

138
Q

higher concentrations of cortisol decrease

A

inflammatory response

139
Q

cortisol is used as an …

A

anti-inflammatory medication (in higher doses). At normal levels, helps to limit too much inflammation

140
Q

synthetic versions of cortisol are important what

A

important drugs for limiting inflammatory damage

141
Q

cortisol secretion is highly linked to

A

carcadian rhythm

142
Q

cortisol levels rise when

A

a couple hours before waking (increases blood sugar until breakfast)

143
Q

cortisol levels decrease when

A

through the day and is the lowest at night while sleeping

144
Q

cortisol cycle is dependant on what

A

regular sleep schedule

145
Q

cushings syndrome results from

A

excess cortisol secretion

146
Q

symptoms of cushings syndrome

A
  • Depression, moodyness
  • Osteoporosis
  • Muscles weakness
  • hyperglycemia (may lead to type 2 diabetes)
  • Immunosuppression
  • Redistribution of fat from limbs to trunk (buffalo
    hump and moon face)
  • Hypertension (high blood pressure) – cortisol potentiates the effects of epinephrine and increases vasoconstriction
147
Q

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is the mane androgen produced where

A

in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex

148
Q

when is DHEA produced

A

during exercise

149
Q

what does DHEA have similar effects to

A

testosterone though it plays a more significant role in adult females then males

150
Q

in females adrenal androgens are converted to what

A

estrogen by aromatases. after menopause, this is the only source of estrogen

151
Q

what can overstimulating the adrenal glands do

A

rarely it can lead to masculinization in females because of increased androgen production

152
Q

the endocrine system responds to stresses by releasing …

A

cortisol from the adrenal cortex and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla (fight or flight )

153
Q

epinephrine breaks down what

A

stored fat for gluconeogenesis (increases effects of glucagon and thyroid hormones)

154
Q

epinephrine increases blood sugar for what

A

Atp production

155
Q

Epinephrine helps cells use O2 to promote what

A

ATP production

156
Q

Epinephrine increases what

A

heart rate

157
Q

cortisol breaks down

A

fat and glycogen to increase blood sugar

158
Q

long term stress is

A

detrimental

159
Q

pancreas location

A

behind the stomach

160
Q

the pancreas is what kind of gland

A

both endocrine and exocrine

161
Q

(pancreas) exocrine:

A

secretes enzymes and bicarbonate into small intestine during digestion

162
Q

(pancreas) Endocroine:

A

secretes insulin and glucagen to regulate blood glucose

163
Q

panceratic islets of Langerhand for endocrine funtion:

A

alpha cells- glucagon,
beta cells- insulin

164
Q

eating stimulates what

A

insulin production (sugars and starch most); signals all cells to take up blood stream nutrients store anything not needed immediately. decreases blood glucose (stimulated GLUT production)

165
Q

excess nutrients are taken up by what

A

the liver, muscles (glycogen) and fat cells (triglycerides)

166
Q

fasting stimulates

A

glucagon

167
Q

glucagon signals

A

cells to break down stored energy so glucose is available for ATP production, maintains blood sugar in a narrow range even during exercise

168
Q

low blood sugar is called

A

hypoglycemia

169
Q

hypoglycemia stimulates

A

some epinephrine release, also causing cells to break down stored nutrients

170
Q

thyroid hormone, epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and glucagon all stimualte

A

breakdown of stored nutrients to increase blood glucose and give cells a constant supply for ATP

171
Q

Type 1 diabetes

A
  • Autoimmune disease: immune cells attack the pancreatic islet beta cells that produce
    insulin, so no insulin can be produced.
  • Insulin-dependent diabetes or juvenile diabetes: insulin injections required to signal
    cells to take up blood glucose, and patients must monitor blood glucose
172
Q

Typer 2 diabetes

A
  • Long-term, a diet rich in sugars leads to constant high insulin secretion from pancreas.
  • Fewer insulin receptors on cells and they do not respond well to insulin, called insulin
    resistance.
  • So your body reacts as if there is insufficient or no insulin.
  • Eventually pancreas may stop producing insulin as beta cells die from constantly
    making insulin.
173
Q

glucose stays in the bloodstream and doesn’t enter cells (hyperglycemia) in what type of diabetes

A

both type one and type two

174
Q

how is glucose excreted (diabetes)

A

in urine causeing thirst

175
Q

symptoms of diabetes

A

increased hunger, high blood sugar, weakness, fatigue,
dizziness/fainting

176
Q

what happens to cells (diabetes)

A

theyy starve because nutrients stay in blood bot going into cells

177
Q

being overweight increses the risk of what

A

type two diabetes BUT type 2 often causes an increase in body weight because of excessive hunger since cells call for more energy.

178
Q

Gonad hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone) are stimulated by

A

LH from the anterior pituitary

179
Q

testes mostly produce

A

testosterone

180
Q

ovaries produce

A

estrogen and progesterone

181
Q

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary signals

A

spermatogenesis (testes) and oogenesis (ovaries).

182
Q

testosterone is the

A

primary androgen in males

183
Q

testosterone is made by what

A

leydig cells

184
Q

Anabolic (tissue growth):

A

increases protein synthesis (muscle), increased bone density and maturation, and sex organ
development and secondary sex
characteristics (facial and armpit hair,
deepening voice).

185
Q

FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to produce

A

sperm

186
Q

The theca cells surrounding the developing oocyte
produce

A

estrogen in response to LH

187
Q

FSH acts on granulosa cells, promoting

A

egg development

188
Q

As the follicle grows, the theca cells surrounding granulosa
cells produce

A

more estrogen because they have more LH receptors stimulated by granulosa cells.

189
Q

The corpus luteum (empty follicle) then secretes progesterone to increase

A

growth of uterine lining.

190
Q

progesterone functions

A

*Increase uterine lining before fertilization
*Support pregnancy and fetal development

191
Q

estrogen functions

A

*Estrogen functions:
*Secondary sex characteristic development during puberty
*LH surge due to estrogen increase in menstrual cycle
*Increases bone formation (osteoporosis is a consequence of menopause)
*Increases blood clotting (increased stroke risk from birth control)

192
Q

aging causes a decrease in

A

hormone and hormone receptor production

193
Q

theres no what in menopause

A

estrogen in ovaries

194
Q

when aging testosterone decrease but what stimulates it

A

exercise

195
Q

elderly people sleep ledd so what has decreased

A

melatonin

196
Q

GH decreases (aging)

A

muscle and bone density loss; exercise can
stimulate some production.

197
Q

TH production decreases (aging)

A

slower basal metabolism and so
weight gain and lower body heat.

198
Q

Parathyroid hormone increases to help

A

calcium absorption in intestine, but
also causes bone resorption; exercise can help maintain bone density.

Biology (5 decks)

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