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2nd block > Endocrine System-2 > Flashcards

Endocrine System-2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the cells that comprise the thyroid follicles and what each secretes?

A

Follicular cells- thyroid hormones- thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine T3

Parafollicular cells- calcitonin CT

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2
Q

What is colloid and where is it stored?

A

Thyroglobulin with attached iodine is called colloid and stored in the lumen of the follicle

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3
Q

How are thyroid hormones synthesized?

A

Combining iodine and tyrosine

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4
Q

What are the functions of T3 and T4?

A
  • ensures normal body growth
  • regulates basal metabolic rate
  • synthesis of protein
  • breakdown of fats
  • use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production
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5
Q

What are the functions of calcitonin?

A

Promotes bone building

Stops reabsorption of bone

Decreases plasma calcium

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6
Q

Explain the control of T3 and T4 secretion

A
  1. Low blood levels of T3 and T4 or metabolic rates stimulate release of TRH from hypothalamus
  2. TRH carried by hypophyseal portal veins to anterior pituitary, stimulates release of TSH by thyrotrophs
  3. TSH released into the blood stimulates thyroid follicular cells which then release T3 and T4
  4. T3 inhibits release of TRH and TSH(negative feedback)
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7
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism/thyrotoxicosis?

A
  • Hair loss and bulging eyes
  • tremor
  • Heat intolerance
  • Sweating and irritability
  • diahrrea
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8
Q

What are treatments for hyperthyroidism/thyroxycosis?

A

Anti-thyroid medication

Radiation

Thyroid surgery

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9
Q

What is the clinical correlation between goiter and hyperthyroidism/thyroxicosis?

A

-Enlarged thyroid

Can lead to hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism

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10
Q

What is hypothyroidism?

A

Decreased T4(thyroxine)production

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11
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism?

A 
Hair and eye brow loss
Pale skin and tiredness, lethargy
Dislike of cold
Poor memory 
Weight gain and hoarse voice
Constipation 
Myxedema
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12
Q

What can be used to treat thyroid is?

A

Thyroxine

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13
Q

What are the 2 types of epithelial cells in the parathyroid glands and their functions?

A

Chief (principle) cells- produce parathyroid hormone(PTH)

Oxyphil cells- unknown purpose

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14
Q

What are the functions of PTH?

A

Increase blood calcium level

Increases the rate of Ca2+ and Mg2+ reabsorption from urine

Promotes formation of calcitrol, which increases the absorption of Ca2+, Mg2+ from the GI tract

Decrease blood phosphate level

Increases the number and activity of osteoclasts

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15
Q

What is hypoparathyroidism?

A

Deficiency in blood calcium

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16
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?

A

-Abnormal action potentials leading to twitches

  • Spasms
  • tetany of skeletal muscles
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17
Q

What is hyperparathyroidism?

A

-Elevated blood calcium level

Possibly due to hypersecretion of PTH

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18
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hyperparathyroidism?

A
  • fractures

- kidney stones

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19
Q

What are the causes of hyperparathyroidism?

A

Tumor

Excessive reabsorption of bone

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20
Q

What are causes of hypoparathyroidism?

A

Thyroid surgery

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21
Q

What are the functions of aldosterone?

A
  • Increase reabsorption of Na+ an Cl-, bicarbonate and water following it
  • promotes excretion of K+ and H+
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22
Q

Explain the regulation of calcium in the blood

A
  • High Ca2+ in blood stimulates thyroid gland para follicular cells to release more CT
  • Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts, decreasing blood Ca2+ level
  • Low level of Ca2+ in blood stimulates parathyroid gland chief cells to release more PTH
  • Parathyroid hormone promotes the release of Ca2+ from bone extracellular matrix into blood and slows loss of Ca2+ in urine , increasing blood Ca2+ level
  • PTH also stimulates the kidneys to release CALCITRIOL
  • Calcitriol stimulates increased absorption of Ca2+ from foods, which increases blood Ca2+ level
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23
Q

Explain the formation of angiotensinogen 2 (the first part of regulation of aldosterone)

A
  • Dehydration, Na+ deficiency or hemorrhage leads to decrease in blood volume
  • decreased blood volume leads to decrease in blood pressure, stimulating juxtamedullary cells of kidneys to release renin
  • Angiotensinogen along with renin leads to increased angiotensin 1
  • Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs converts angiotensin 1 into angiotensin 2
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24
Q

Explain the effect of angiotensin 2 in the regulation of aldosterone (second part of aldosterone regulation)

A

Angiotensin 2 causes adrenal cortex to release aldosterone which causes increased Na+ and Cl- absorption and water reabsorption

Aldosterone also increases amount of K+ and H+ released in urine

This increases blood volume, along with constriction of arterioles from increased angiotensin 2, blood pressure is raised

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25
Q

How much hormone activity is due to cortisol?

A

95% of all hormonal activity

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26
Q

What are the functions of glucocorticoids?

A
  • regulate metabolism
  • stimulate lypolysis
  • raise blood pressure by vasoconstriction
  • conversion of amino acids to glucose
  • increases rate of protein catabolism and lypolysis
  • anti-inflammatory effects reduced(skin cream)
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27
Q

What are the functions of glucocorticoids for reducing anti-inflammatory effects?

A
  • depress phagocytes
  • depress capillary permeability
  • Reduces release of histamine from mast cells
  • Inhibit white blood cells that participate in inflammatory response
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28
Q

Explain the regulation of glucocorticoids

A
  1. Decreased glucocorticoid level in blood
  2. Increased Corticoid releasing hormone from hypothalamus causes cortotrophs to release ACTH from anterior pituitary
  3. Cells in zona fasciculata in adrenal cortex secrete glucocorticoids
  4. Increased glucocorticoids in blood inhibits Corticoid releasing hormone
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29
Q

What is Cushing syndrome?

A

Chronic condition where there is excess glucocorticoid due to therapy with glucocorticoid drugs

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30
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of Cushing syndrome?

A
  • Truncatal obesity and rounded face
  • Fat deposition in the superclavicular
  • Posterior neck and purple abdominal striae
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31
Q

What can be used as treatment for Cushing’s Syndrome?

A

Stop medications, specifically glucocorticoid drugs

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32
Q

What is Addison disease?

A

Deficiency of the cortex of the adrenal gland which results in low levels of the cortisol and aldosterone

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33
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of Addison disease?

A
  • Anorexia and nausea
  • Vomiting and weight loss
  • Weakness
  • Fatigue and hypotension
  • Hyper pigmentation
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34
Q

What is the purpose of adrenal androgens from zona reticularis in females?

A
  • contribute to sex drive
  • in females androgens converted to estrogens by other body tissues
  • After menopause all estrogens come from conversion of adrenal androgens
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35
Q

Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla receive direct innervation from
_____________ _____________ _______ (remember what synapses in the adrenal medulla)

A

Sympathetic preganglionic neurons

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36
Q

Chromaffin cells release _________ rather than _________ and a small amount of ________

A

Hormones

Neurotransmitters

Dopamine

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37
Q

What is the purpose of chromaffin cells in the adrena medulla?

A

Causes fight or flight behavior

  • Increase cardiac output , blood flow to heart, liver, skeletal muscles, adipose tissue
  • dilate airways
  • Increase blood glucose and FA levels
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38
Q

_______________ is the tumor of the Adrenal medulla

A

Phaeochromocytoma

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39
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of phaeochromocytoma?

A
  • episodic hypertension
  • anxiety
  • sweating
  • flushing and headaches
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40
Q

What can be used to treat phaeochromocytoma?

A

Surgery

Phenoxybenzamine

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41
Q

What are the cell types of the pancreas and what is the function of each?

A

Alpha cells- produces glucagon

Beta cells- produces insulin

Deta cells- produces somatostatin

F cells- produces pancreatic polypeptide

42
Q

Give each cell type of the pancreas and the percentage of the pancreas each makes up

A

Alpha cells- 20%

Beta cells- 70%

Delta cells- 5%

F cells

43
Q

What can be used to treat Diabetes Mellitus?

A

Education, diet, oral hypoglycemic drugs and insulin therapy

44
Q

Describe insulin and glucagon regulation when there is low blood sugar

A
  1. Low blood glucose(hypoglycemia) stimulates alpha cells to secrete glucagon
  2. Glucagon acts on hepatocytes on liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose(glycogenolysis) as well as form glucose from lactic acids and certain amino acids(gluconeogenesis)
  3. Glucose released by hepatocytes raises blood glucose level to normal

4 raise of blood glucose levels causes hyperglycemia to inhibit release if glucagon

45
Q

Explain the regulation of insulin and glucagon regulation when there is high blood glucose levels

A
  1. High blood glucose levels(hyperglycemia) stimulates beta cells to secrete insulin
  2. Insulin causes body cells to accelerate
    - diffusion of glucose into cells,
    - speed the conversion of glucose and glycogen,(glyconeogenesis),
    - increased uptake of amino acids and increase protein synthesis
    - speed the synthesis off fatty acids(lipogenesis)
    - slow glycogenolysis
    - slow gluconeogenesis
  3. Blood glucose levels fall
  4. If blood glucose levels continues to fall, hypoglycemia inhibits the release of insulin
46
Q

Differentiate the types of diabetes Mellitus

A

Type 1- juveniles onset, insulin deficiency due to the destruction of insulin secreting pancreatic B cells

Type 2- late onset- due to insulin secretion and resistance, B cell dysfunction

47
Q

What are symptoms of diabetes Mellitus?

A

Hyperglycemia, polydipsia, polyuria, weight loss.

Other complications including retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, coronary artery disease and strokes

48
Q

What hormones are produced in the ovaries

A

Several steroid hormones:

2 estrogens (estradiol and estrone)

Progesterone

49
Q

What is the function of the ovaries?

A

Along with FSH and LH, regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy and prepare mammary glands for secretion

Promote and maintain secondary female characteristics

50
Q

What are the hormones produced by the ovaries?

A

Inhibin
Relaxin
2 estrogens (estradiol and estrone)
Progesterone

51
Q

Why do the ovaries secrete relaxin during pregnancy?

A

The ovaries and placenta produce the peptide hormone, relaxin to increase flexibility of the pubic symphysis during pregnancy and helps dilate the uterine cervix during labor and delivery

52
Q

What is the job of inhibin in both the testes and ovaries?

A

To inhibit FSH

53
Q

Describe the importance of the testes secreting testoserone

A
  • stimulates decscent of the testes before birth
  • regulates production of sperm
  • stimulates the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics
54
Q

What forms the capsule of the pineal gland?

A

Pia mater

55
Q

What does the pineal gland consist of?

A

Masses of neuralgia and secretory cells called pinealocytes

56
Q

What does the pineal gland secrete?

A

Melatonin derived from Serotonin

Melatonin appears to contribute to the setting of the body’s biological clock

57
Q

What is the job of melatonin?

A

Regulate the circadian rhythm

58
Q

Describe seasonal affective disorder

A

During winter days are short, leading to excessive production of melatonin which can lead to depression

59
Q

What can be used to treat seasonal affective disorder?

A

Exposure to bright/daylight leads to recovery, similar to jet lag when time zones are crossed

60
Q

What hormones are produced by the thymus?

A

Thymosin

Thymic humoral factor

Thymic factor

Thymopoietin

61
Q

What is the purpose of the thymus?

A

To promote the maturation of T cells

62
Q

Prostaglandins are found in virtually all body cells except ________ __________ ________

A

Red blood cells

63
Q

Eicosanoids act as ___________ hormones in response to chemical or mechanical stimuli

A

Local

64
Q

What is thromboxane?

A

A modified prostaglandin that constricts blood vessels and promotes platelet activation

65
Q

How do eicosanoids exert their effects?

A

Bind to receptors on target cell plasma membranes and stimulate or inhibit the synthesis of secondary messengers such as cyclic AMP

66
Q

What is the function of leukotrienes?

A

Stimulate chemotaxis of white blood cells and mediate inflammation

67
Q

What are the functions of prostaglandins?

A

Alter:

  • smooth muscle contraction
  • glandular secretions
  • blood flow
  • reproductive processes
  • platelet function
  • respiration
  • nerve impulse transmission
  • lipid metabolism
  • immune responses
  • roles in promoting fever, inflammation and intensifying pain
68
Q

What is stress that helps us to meet challenges and is helpful?

A

Eustress

69
Q

What is harmful stress?

A

Distress?

70
Q

What is a stressor?

A

Any stimulus that produces a stress response, can be almost any disturbance of the human body, temperature, poisons, bleeding from wound or surgery.

71
Q

What controls the General Adaptation Syndrome/Stress response?

A

The hypothalamus

72
Q

What are the 3 stages in the GAS?

A
  1. The initial fight or flight response
  2. Lower resistance reaction
  3. Exhaustion
73
Q

Explain the origins of the initial fight or flight response

A

Initiated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

74
Q

Explain the origins of the resistance reaction

A

Initiated in large by the hypothalamus releasing hormones and is a longer lasting response. Hormones involved include Corticotropin releasing hormone(CRH), growth releasing hormone(GHRH) and Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

75
Q

Explain the initiation of the exhaustion stage of the GAS

A

The resources of the body may eventually become so depleted that they cannot sustain the resistance stage and EXHAUSTION ensues

76
Q

What is the purpose of gastrin in the GI tract?

A

Promotes secretion of gastric juice, increasing the movement of the stomach

77
Q

A patient comes in with fatigue, weight loss, anxiety/irritability, (enlargement of thyroid gland)goitre, heat insensitivity and bulging eyes. What disease does this person have?

A

Grave’s disease

78
Q

Name the layers of the adrenal gland in order of the most superficial

A

Adrenal capsule

Adrenal cortex

  • glomerulosa
  • fasciculata
  • reticularis

-adrenal medulla

79
Q

What does the Zona glomerulosa secrete?

A

Mineralcorticoids , mainly aldosterone

80
Q

What does the zona fasciculata secrete?

A

Glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol

81
Q

What does the zona reticularis secrete?

A

Androgens

82
Q

Where are epinephrine and nonepinephrine secreted?

A

Chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla

83
Q

A patient has low levels of cortisol and aldosterone. What part of the adrenal gland must be affected?

A

Zona fasciculata- due to low cortisol levels

Zona glomerulosa- due to low aldosterone levels

84
Q

A patient exhibits fatigue and hypertension, anorexia and hypotension and vomiting and hyper pigmentation. What can be used to treat her?

A

Steroid replacement

85
Q

What is the hormonal result of Addison’s disease?

A

Low levels of cortisol and aldosterone levels due to adrenal cortex deficiency

86
Q

A patient has a tumor on the adrenal medulla which leads to elevated catecholamines. What hormone levels are elevated and what can be used to treat the disease?

A

Hormones elevated: Epinephrine and nonepinephrine

Treated with surgery and phenoxybenzamine

87
Q

A bodybuilder walks into your office with poster neck and purple abdominal striae. What is the cause and what are the possible symptoms?

A

Cause: excess glucocorticoids

Other symptoms:

truncal obesity and rounded face

Fat deposition in the suprclavicular

88
Q

A patient walks into your office with twitches, spasms and tetanus of muscle. What is the cause of this?

A

Thyroid surgery may have led to deficient blood calcium

89
Q

A patient walks into your office who is prone to fractures and kidney stones. What are possible causes

A

A tumor or excessive reabsorption of bone matrix may have lead to high blood calcium levels

90
Q

What is thyroglobulin?

A

A glycoprotein with large amounts of tyrosine

91
Q

How are thyroid hormones synthesized?

A

By combining iodine with tyrosine

92
Q

How much hormonal activity in the Zona glomerulosa is due to aldosterone?

A

95%

93
Q

A tumor in the_______ _____________ can lead to hypersecretion of ______________ also known as ______________

A

Zona glomerulosa

Aldosterone

Aldosteronism

94
Q

What are the symptoms of aldosteronism?

A

Retention of sodium and water causes high blood pressure

95
Q

A patient walks into your office with hypertension and has not urinated in several days. What is a possible cause?

A

Aldosteronism

96
Q

What is the difference between Cushing syndrome and Cushing disease?

A

Cushing syndrome- due to excess cortisol in the body regardless of the cause

Cushing disease- caused by pituitary gland tumor that over-secretes the hormone ACTH

97
Q

Histologically the pancreas consists of ___________ _______\ ___________ of _________ and __________ of _______

A

Pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans

Clusters of cells(acini)

98
Q

What is glycogenolysis?

A

The conversion of glycogen to glucose, often done to raise blood sugar levels

99
Q

What is T3 and T4?

A

T3- triiodothyronine

T4- thyroxine

100
Q

How does Graves’ disease lead to thyroxytosis/hyperthyroidism?

A

Graves’ disease produces antibodies to mimic the action of TSH, this is an autoimmune disease

101
Q

What is a treatment for hypoparathyroidism?

A

Calcium supplements

2nd block (6 decks)

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