1. Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) 2. Calcitonin

1. Renin 2. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol 3. Erythropoietin

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Flashcards by Secret acc

Hormones of Hypothalamus:

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (somatostatin)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Dopamine or prolactin-inhibiting factor

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Chemical structures of Hypothalamus hormones:

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone: PEPTIDE
Corticotropin-releasing hormone: PEPTIDE
Growth hormone-releasing hormone: PEPTIDE
Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (somatostatin): PEPTIDE
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: PEPTIDE
Dopamine or prolactin-inhibiting factor: AMINE

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Hormones of Anterior pituitary:

Growth Hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Prolactin
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone

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Chemical structures of Anterior pituitary hormones:

Growth Hormone: PEPTIDE
Thyroid-stimulating hormone: PEPTIDE
Adrenocorticotropic hormone: PEPTIDE
Prolactin: PEPTIDE
Follicle-stimulating hormone: PEPTIDE
Luteinizing hormone: PEPTIDE

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Hormones of Posterior pituitary:

Antidiuretic hormone (also called vasopressin)
Oxytocin

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Chemical structures of Posterior pituitary hormones:

Antidiuretic hormone (also called vasopressin): PEPTIDE
Oxytocin: PEPTIDE

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Hormones of Thyroid:

Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
Calcitonin

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Chemical structures of Thyroid hormones:

Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): AMINE
Calcitonin: PEPTIDE

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Hormones of Adrenal cortex:

Cortisol
Aldosterone

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Chemical structures of Adrenal cortex hormones:

Cortisol: STEROID
Aldosterone: STEROID

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Hormones of Adrenal medulla:

Norepinephrine, epinephrine

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Chemical structures of Adrenal medulla hormones:

Norepinephrine, epinephrine: AMINE

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Hormones of Pancreas:

Insulin (beta cells)
Glucagon (a cells)

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Chemical structures of Pancreas hormones:

Insulin (beta cells): PEPTIDE
Glucagon (a cells): PEPTIDE

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Hormones of Parathyroid:

Parathyroid hormone

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Chemical structures of Parathyroid Hormones:

Parathyroid hormone: PEPTIDE

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Hormones of Testes:

Testosterone

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Chemical structures of Testes hormones:

Testosterone: STEROID

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Hormones of Ovaries:

Estrogens
Progesterone

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Chemical structures of Ovaries hormones:

Estrogens: STEROID
Progesterone: STEROID

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Hormones of Placenta:

Human chorionic gonadotropin
Human somatomammotropin
Estrogens
Progesterone

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Chemical structures of Placenta hormones:

Human chorionic gonadotropin: PEPTIDE
Human somatomammotropin: PEPTIDE
Estrogens: STEROID
Progesterone: STEROID

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Hormones of Kidney:

Renin
1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol
Erythropoietin

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Chemical structures of Kidney hormones:

Renin: PEPTIDE
1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol: STEROID
Erythropoietin: PEPTIDE

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Hormones of heart:

1. Atrial natriuretic peptide

Chemical structures of Heart hormones:

1. Atrial natriuretic peptide: PEPTIDE

Hormones of Stomach:

1. Gastrin

Chemical structures of Stomach hormones:

1. Gastrin: PEPTIDE

Hormones of Small intestine:

1. Secretin 2. Cholecystokinin

Chemical structures of Small intestine hormones:

1. Secretin: PEPTIDE 2. Cholecystokinin: PEPTIDE

Hormones of Adipocytes:

1. Leptin

Chemical structures of Adipocytes hormones:

1. Leptin: PEPTIDE

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Causes release of growth hormone

Growth hormone-releasing hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Inhibits release of growth hormone

Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (somatostatin)

WHAT HORMONE? Causes release of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Inhibits release of prolactin

Dopamine or prolactin-inhibiting factor

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates protein synthesis and overall growth of most cells and tissues

Growth hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones (thyroxine and triiodothyronine)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates synthesis and secretion of adrenocortical hormones (cortisol, androgens, and aldosterone)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Promotes development of the female breasts and secretion of milk

Prolactin

WHAT HORMONE? Causes growth of follicles in the ovaries and sperm maturation in Sertoli cells of testes

Follicle-stimulating hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates testosterone synthesis in Leydig cells of testes; stimulates ovulation, formation of corpus luteum, and estrogen and progesterone synthesis in ovaries

Luteinizing hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Increases water reabsorption by the kidneys and causes vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure

Antidiuretic hormone (also called vasopressin)

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates milk ejection from breasts and uterine contractions

Oxytocin

WHAT HORMONE? Increases the rates of chemical reactions in most cells, thus increasing body metabolic rate

Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

WHAT HORMONE? Promotes deposition of calcium in the bones and decreases extracellular fluid calcium ion concentration

Calcitonin

WHAT HORMONE? Has multiple metabolic functions for controlling metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats; also has anti-inflammatory effects

Cortisol

WHAT HORMONE? Increases renal sodium reabsorption, potassium secretion, and hydrogen ion secretion

Aldosterone

WHAT HORMONE? Same effects as sympathetic stimulation

Norepinephrine, epinephrine

WHAT HORMONE? Promotes glucose entry in many cells, and in this way controls carbohydrate metabolism

Insulin (beta cells)

WHAT HORMONE? Increases synthesis and release of glucose from the liver into the body fluids

Glucagon (a cells)

WHAT HORMONE? Controls serum calcium ion concentration by increasing calcium absorption by the gut and kidneys and releasing calcium from bones

Parathyroid hormone

WHAT HORMONE? Promotes development of male reproductive system and male secondary sexual characteristics

Testosterone

WHAT HORMONE? Promotes growth and development of female reproductive system, female breasts, and female secondary sexual characteristics

Estrogens

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates secretion of "uterine milk" by the uterine endometrial glands and promotes development of secretory apparatus of breasts

Progesterone

WHAT HORMONE? Promotes growth of corpus luteum and secretion of estrogens and progesterone by corpus luteum

Human chorionic gonadotropin

WHAT HORMONE? Probably helps promote development of some fetal tissues, as well as the mother's breasts

Human somatomammotropin

WHAT HORMONE? Catalyzes conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (acts as an enzyme)

Renin

WHAT HORMONE? Increases intestinal absorption of calcium and bone mineralization

1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol

WHAT HORMONE? Increases erythrocyte production

Erythropoietin

WHAT HORMONE? Increases sodium excretion by kidneys, reduces blood pressure

Atrial natriuretic peptide

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates hydrogen chloride secretion by parietal cells

Gastrin

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to release bicarbonate and water

Secretin

WHAT HORMONE? Stimulates gallbladder contraction and release of pancreatic enzymes

Cholecystokinin

WHAT HORMONE? Inhibits appetite, stimulates thermogenesis

Leptin

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems:

1. Neurotransmitters 2. Endocrine Hormones 3. Neuroendocrine Hormones 4. Paracrines 5. Autocrines 6. Cytokines

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems: ______: Released by neuron axon terminals into synapses to control nearby nerve cells.

Neurotransmitters

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems: ______: Released by glands into the bloodstream to act on distant target cells.

Endocrine Hormones

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems: ______: Secreted by neurons into the blood to influence distant target cells.

Neuroendocrine Hormones

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems: ______: Secreted into extracellular fluid to affect nearby different cell types.

Paracrines

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems: ______: Secreted into extracellular fluid to act on the same cells that produce them.

Autocrines

Types of Chemical Messenger Systems: ______: Peptides in extracellular fluid that act as autocrines, paracrines, or endocrine hormones.

Cytokines

Structure and Synthesis of Hormones:

1. Proteins and polypeptides 2. Steroids 3. Derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine

Structure and Synthesis of Hormones: Proteins and polypeptides, including hormones secreted by the ______ and ______, the ______ (insulin and glucagon), the ______ (parathyroid hormone), and many others.

anterior, posterior pituitary gland, pancreas, parathyroid gland

Structure and Synthesis of Hormones: Steroids secreted by the ______ (cortisol and aldosterone), the ______ (estrogen and progesterone), the ______ (testosterone), and the ______ (estrogen and progesterone).

adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes, placenta

Structure and Synthesis of Hormones: Derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine, secreted by the ______ (thyroxine and triiodothyronine) and the ______ (epinephrine and norepinephrine). There are no known polysaccharides or nucleic acid hormones.

thyroid, adrenal medullae

Storage and Synthesis of Protein and Polypeptides Synthesis Protein and peptide hormones are synthesized on the ______ of ______. They are first made as ______ (______), which are cleaved into ______, then processed in the ______ into active hormones and inactive fragments.

rough endoplasmic reticulum, endocrine cells, inactive precursors, preprohormones, prohormones, Golgi apparatus

Storage and Synthesis of Protein and Polypeptides Storage The active hormones are packaged in ______ within the cell ______, often attached to the ______, and are stored until needed.

secretory vesicles, cytoplasm, cell membrane

Storage and Synthesis of Protein and Polypeptides Secretion Hormone release occurs via ______ when the vesicles fuse with the ______, triggered by either increased ______ (from ______) or activation of ______. Peptide hormones are ______, allowing easy entry into the bloodstream for transport to target tissues.

exocytosis, cell membrane, cytosolic calcium, cell depolarization, cAMP-dependent protein kinases, water-soluble

Storage and Synthesis of Steroid Hormones Synthesis Steroid hormones are synthesized from ______, which has a similar structure (three ______ and one ______). Cholesterol for steroid synthesis comes from both ______ sources and ______ synthesis within the cells.

cholesterol, cyclohexyl rings, cyclopentyl ring, plasma, de novo

Storage and Synthesis of Steroid Hormones Storage Steroid hormones are not stored in ______ quantities. However, cholesterol esters are stored in ______ and can be quickly mobilized for hormone production when needed.

large, cytoplasmic vacuoles

Storage and Synthesis of Steroid Hormones Secretion Being highly ______, steroid hormones diffuse easily across the ______ immediately after synthesis, entering the ______ and ______ without the need for vesicle storage or transport.

lipid-soluble, cell membrane, interstitial fluid, bloodstream

Storage and Synthesis of Amine Hormones Synthesis Amine hormones are derived from ______. Thyroid hormones and adrenal medullary hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) are formed in ______.

tyrosine, glandular cells

Storage and Synthesis of Amine Hormones Storage Thyroid Hormones Stored in the ______ within the protein ______ in large ______. Catecholamines (______ and ______) Stored in ______ within ______ cells.

thyroid gland, thyroglobulin, follicles, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, vesicles, adrenal medullary

Storage and Synthesis of Amine Hormones Secretion Thyroid Hormones Released when split from ______; then, they bind to ______ like ______, which slowly releases them to target tissues. Catecholamines Released from ______ in the ______ via ______. In circulation, they exist either freely or bound to other substances.

thyroglobulin, plasma proteins, thyroxine-binding globulin, vesicles, adrenal medulla, exocytosis

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Secretion and Duration of Action: Hormones vary in how quickly they act after release; some, like ______ and ______, act within seconds, while others, such as ______ and ______, may take days to months to achieve full effect. Each hormone's onset and duration are specialized for its function.

norepinephrine, epinephrine, thyroxine, growth hormone

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Feedback Control of Secretion: Negative Feedback: Most hormones are regulated by ______, where hormone actions or their products ______ further secretion to avoid ______.

negative feedback, suppress, overactivity

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Feedback Control of Secretion: Positive Feedback: Rarely, ______ amplifies hormone secretion, as seen in the ______ surge triggered by ______ before ovulation.

positive feedback, luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Feedback Control of Secretion: Cyclical Variations: Hormone secretion can vary with ______, ______, ______, and ______, influenced by ______.

seasonal, developmental, diurnal, sleep cycles, neural pathways

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Transport in the Blood: Water-Soluble Hormones (______ and ______): Travel dissolved in ______, freely ______ to target cells.

peptides, catecholamines, plasma, diffuse

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Transport in the Blood: Lipid-Soluble Hormones (______ and ______): Bind to ______ for transport, creating ______; they are ______ while bound and become biologically active only when ______.

steroid, thyroid hormones, plasma proteins, reservoirs, inactive, released

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Hormone Clearance: Clearance depends on both ______ and ______, known as the ______.

secretion rate, removal rate, metabolic clearance rate

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Hormone Clearance: Hormones are cleared by ______ in tissues, ______ with tissues, ______ into bile, or ______ into urine.

metabolic destruction, binding, liver excretion, kidney excretion

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Hormone Clearance: Water-Soluble Hormones are cleared ______ due to ______ and ______.

quickly, rapid degradation, kidney/liver excretion

Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood Hormone Clearance: Protein-Bound Hormones are cleared more ______, remaining in circulation ______; ______, for example, may stay in the blood for up to ______ days.

slowly, longer, thyroid hormones, 6

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Hormone-Receptor Binding: Hormones initiate action by binding to specific ______ on ______. Cells lacking these ______ do not respond to the hormone.

receptors, target cells, receptors

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Hormone-Receptor Binding: Hormone-receptor binding triggers a cascade of ______, allowing even ______ hormone amounts to have significant effects.

cellular reactions, small

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Receptor Locations: Cell Membrane: Receptors for ______, ______, and ______ hormones are on the cell membrane.

protein, peptide, catecholamine

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Receptor Locations: Cytoplasm: ______ hormone receptors are typically found in the cytoplasm.

Steroid

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Receptor Locations: Nucleus: ______ hormone receptors are located in the nucleus, often associated with ______.

Thyroid, chromosomes

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Receptor Regulation: The ______ and ______ of hormone receptors are not fixed; they can be adjusted by the cell as needed.

number, sensitivity

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Receptor Regulation: ______: High hormone levels may reduce receptor numbers or activity through mechanisms like ______, ______, or ______, ______ tissue sensitivity.

Down-Regulation, inactivation, internal sequestration, lysosomal degradation, decreasing

Hormone Receptors and their Activators Receptor Regulation: ______: Some hormones increase receptor production or signaling molecules in target cells, ______ tissue responsiveness to the hormone.

Up-Regulation, enhancing

Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation Ion Channel-linked Receptors Neurotransmitters, like ______ and ______, bind to receptors on the ______, leading to structural changes in the receptor.This binding typically results in the ______ or ______ of ______, which can allow specific ions (______, ______, ______, etc.) to move through the membrane. The altered ion movement across the membrane influences the ______ and ______ of the ______ cells, contributing to the ______. While some hormones can directly act on ______ receptors, most hormones modulate ion channels indirectly via ______ or ______ receptors.

acetylcholine, norepinephrine, postsynaptic membrane, opening, closing, ion channels, sodium, potassium, calcium, excitability, function, postsynaptic, signaling process, ion channel, G protein-linked, enzyme-linked

Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation G protein-linked hormone receptors These receptors have ______ transmembrane segments and interact with ______, which consist of three subunits: ______, ______, and ______. When a hormone (______) binds to the extracellular domain of the receptor, it induces a conformational change that activates the ______.

seven, heterotrimeric G proteins, alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), ligand, G proteins

Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation G protein-linked hormone receptors Activated G proteins can initiate various intracellular responses, including:

- Opening or closing of cell membrane ion channels. - Altering the activity of cytoplasmic enzymes. - Activating gene transcription.

Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation G protein-linked hormone receptors In their ______ state, the G proteins bind ______. Upon ______ by the receptor, GDP is exchanged for ______, triggering downstream signaling events. When a receptor is activated, it induces a conformational change that allows the ______ to exchange ______ for ______, leading to the dissociation of the ______ subunit. This α subunit then interacts with ______ proteins to modify ______ or ______, thereby affecting cell function. The signaling is terminated when the hormone is ______, causing the α subunit to hydrolyze ______ back to ______ and reassociate with the ______ and ______ subunits to reform the ______.

inactive, guanosine diphosphate (GDP), activation, guanosine triphosphate (GTP), GDP-bound G protein, GDP, GTP, alpha (α), intracellular signaling, ion channel, enzyme activity, removed, GTP, GDP, beta (β), gamma (γ), inactive G protein complex

Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation Enzyme-linked hormone receptors are membrane proteins that typically span the membrane ______, with ______ on the outside and ______ on the inside. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it ______ an enzyme located just ______ the ______, leading to changes in cellular function. While some enzyme-linked receptors possess ______, others depend on ______ to facilitate these cellular changes.

once, hormone-binding sites, catalytic sites, activates, inside, membrane, intrinsic enzymatic activity, associated enzymes

Second Messenger Mechanisms:

1. Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP Second Messenger System 2. Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System 3. Calcium-Calmodulin Second Messenger System

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP Second Messenger System The coupling of a hormone with its receptor allows activation of ______. If the receptor couples with a ______ (Gs protein), this stimulates ______, an enzyme that converts cytoplasmic ______ into ______. cAMP then activates ______, which phosphorylates specific cell proteins, triggering a cascade of ______ leading to the cell's ______ to the hormone.

G proteins, stimulatory G protein, adenylyl cyclase, ATP, cAMP, cAMP-dependent protein kinase, biochemical reactions, response

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP Second Messenger System When the hormone receptor is coupled with an ______ (Gi protein), adenylyl cyclase activity ______, reducing ______ and leading to an ______ effect in the cell. Whether cAMP levels rise or fall, different types of target cells can have varying responses depending on their specific ______ and ______.

inhibitory G protein, decreases, cAMP levels, inhibitory, enzymes, intracellular pathways

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP Second Messenger System When a hormone binds to its receptor, it can activate a ______ (Gs protein), which in turn activates ______, converting ______ into ______ within the cell. This cAMP acts as a ______, initiating a cascade that activates ______. This kinase phosphorylates specific proteins, ultimately triggering a range of ______. This process amplifies the hormone's ______, enabling even ______ hormone levels to produce significant effects, similar to other pathways involving ______ and ______ receptors.

stimulatory G protein, adenylyl cyclase, ATP, cAMP, second messenger, cAMP-dependent protein kinase, cellular responses, signal, low, G protein-coupled, enzyme-linked

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP Second Messenger System HORMONES THAT USE ADENYLYL CYCLASE:

1. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 2. Angiotensin II (epithelial cells) 3. Calcitonin 4. Catecholamines (beta receptors) 5. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) 6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 7. Glucagon 8. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) 9. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 10. Luteinizing hormone (LH) 11. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) 12. Secretin 13. Somatostatin 14. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 15. Vasopressin (V2 receptor, epithelial cells)

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System Some hormones activate receptors linked to the enzyme ______, located inside the ______. This enzyme breaks down ______, especially ______, into two important second messengers: ______ and ______.

phospholipase C, cell membrane, membrane phospholipids, phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP₂), inositol triphosphate (IP₃), diacylglycerol (DAG)

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System IP₃ triggers the release of ______ from cellular stores, like the ______ and ______. The released calcium acts as a ______ to initiate ______.

calcium ions, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, secondary messenger, cellular responses

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System DAG activates ______, an enzyme that phosphorylates various proteins to drive the cell's ______. DAG also includes ______, a precursor for prostaglandins and other local hormones that regulate numerous tissue functions across the body.

protein kinase C, response, arachidonic acid

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Cell Membrane Phospholipid Second Messenger System HORMONES THAT USE THE PHOSPHOLIPID SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM:

1. Angiotensin II (vascular smooth muscle) 2. Catecholamines (a receptors) 3. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 4. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) 5. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) 6. Oxytocin 7. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) 8. Vasopressin (V1 receptor, vascular smooth muscle)

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Calcium-Calmodulin Second Messenger System Calcium entry into cells is triggered by either changes in ______ or by hormones that open ______.

membrane potential, calcium channels

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Calcium-Calmodulin Second Messenger System Once inside the cell, calcium binds to ______, a protein with ______ calcium-binding sites. When three or four sites are occupied, calmodulin changes ______, activating or inhibiting ______ that modify cell functions.

calmodulin, four, shape, protein kinases

Second Messenger Mechanisms: Calcium-Calmodulin Second Messenger System For calmodulin activation, ______ must increase from the normal ______ to around ______ to ______, similar to the calcium increase required to activate ______ in muscle contraction.

calcium concentration, 10⁻⁷ mol/L, 10⁻⁶, 10⁻⁵ mol/L, troponin C

HORMONES THAT ACT MAINLY ON THE GENETIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL Steroid hormones act primarily by increasing ______ within target cells.

protein synthesis

HORMONES THAT ACT MAINLY ON THE GENETIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL Steroid hormones act primarily by increasing protein synthesis within target cells. - The process begins as the steroid hormone diffuses into the ______ and binds to a specific ______ in the ______. This hormone-receptor complex then enters the ______, binding to ______ at specific sites and activating ______ to form ______.

cell, receptor protein, cytoplasm, nucleus, DNA, transcription, mRNA

HORMONES THAT ACT MAINLY ON THE GENETIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL Steroid hormones act primarily by increasing protein synthesis within target cells. - The mRNA moves to the ______, directing ______ to synthesize new proteins that function in various cellular roles.

cytoplasm, ribosomes

HORMONES THAT ACT MAINLY ON THE GENETIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL Steroid hormones act primarily by increasing protein synthesis within target cells. - For example, aldosterone binds to receptors in ______ cells, triggering the synthesis of ______ that promote ______ and ______. This process takes at least ______ minutes, highlighting the delayed action typical of steroid hormones.

kidney, proteins, sodium reabsorption, potassium secretion, 45

HORMONES THAT ACT MAINLY ON THE GENETIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL Thyroid Hormones Increase ______ in the Cell ______

Gene Transcription, Nucleus

HORMONES THAT ACT MAINLY ON THE GENETIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL Thyroid Hormones Increase Gene Transcription in the Cell Nucleus Thyroid hormones, ______ and ______, increase ______ of specific genes by binding ______ to receptor proteins within the cell ______. These nuclear receptors act as ______, promoting the synthesis of numerous ______ (likely ______ or more), many of which are enzymes that boost ______ in almost all body cells. Notably, once bound, thyroid hormones can exert their effects for extended periods, lasting ______ to ______, due to their sustained action on gene expression.

thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), transcription, directly, nucleus, transcription factors, intracellular proteins, 100, metabolic activity, days, weeks

Thyroid Metabolic Hormones Thyroid Gland Located below the ______ near the ______, is one of the ______ endocrine glands (______-______ grams in adults).

larynx, trachea, largest, 15, 20

Thyroid Metabolic Hormones Thyroid Gland It secretes two primary metabolic hormones: ______ and ______, which increase the body's ______. A lack of these hormones can lower the ______ by ______-______%, while an excess can increase it by ______-______%.

thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), metabolic rate, basal metabolic rate, 40, 50, 60, 100

Thyroid Metabolic Hormones Thyroid Gland Thyroid secretion is mainly regulated by ______ from the ______.

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), anterior pituitary gland

Thyroid Metabolic Hormones Hormone Production: About 93% of thyroid hormone output is ______, with the remaining 7% as ______. Most T4 is later converted to ______ in tissues, making both essential for metabolic regulation.

T4, T3, T3

Thyroid Metabolic Hormones Hormone Production: T3 is approximately ______ times more potent than ______ but is present in ______ quantities and has a ______ duration in the bloodstream.

four, T4, smaller, shorter

Physiologic Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland consists of numerous ______ (______–______ micrometers in diameter) filled with ______, a substance mainly composed of ______, a glycoprotein that stores thyroid hormones. Follicles are lined with ______ cells that secrete hormones into the follicles.

closed follicles, 100, 300, colloid, thyroglobulin, cuboidal epithelial

Physiologic Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland Once thyroid hormones enter the follicles, they must be reabsorbed through the ______ into the ______ to become ______ in the body.

follicular epithelium, bloodstream, active

Physiologic Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland has a high ______ about ______ times its weight per minute, enabling efficient ______.

blood flow, five, hormone distribution

Physiologic Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland The gland contains ______ cells that secrete ______, a hormone involved in ______ in the blood.

C, calcitonin, calcium regulation

Iodide Pump Mechanism in Thyroid Hormone Formation About ______ milligrams of ingested ______ (in the form of ______) are needed ______ for normal ______, equating to approximately ______ milligram per week.

50, iodine, iodides, annually, thyroxine production, 1

Iodide Pump Mechanism in Thyroid Hormone Formation Iodides ingested orally are absorbed from the ______ into the ______ similarly to ______.

gastrointestinal tract, bloodstream, chlorides

Iodide Pump Mechanism in Thyroid Hormone Formation Most iodides are quickly excreted by the ______.

kidneys

Iodide Pump Mechanism in Thyroid Hormone Formation Approximately ______ of ingested iodides are selectively taken up by ______ cells for the synthesis of ______.

one fifth, thyroid, thyroid hormones

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Iodide Transport The initial step in thyroid hormone production involves the transport of ______ from the ______ into ______ and ______.

iodides, blood, thyroid glandular cells, follicles

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Sodium-Iodide Symporter Iodide is actively transported into ______ via a ______.

thyroid cells, sodium-iodide symporter

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Sodium-Iodide Symporter This symporter co-transports one ______ along with two ______ across the ______.

iodide ion, sodium ions, basolateral membrane

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Energy Source The ______ pump provides energy by exporting ______ out of the cell, allowing ______ to be transported against its ______.

sodium-potassium ATPase (Na+-K+ATPase), sodium, iodide, concentration gradient

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) ______ The process of concentrating the iodide in the cell.

Iodide trapping

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Iodide trapping In a normal thyroid gland, iodide concentration can reach up to ______ times its ______; during peak activity, this can increase to ______ times.

30, blood concentration, 250

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Iodide trapping The activity of the iodide pump is primarily stimulated by ______.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Iodide trapping A decrease in TSH (e.g., due to ______) significantly reduces ______.

hypophysectomy, iodide pump activity

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Iodide Transport and Thyroglobulin Iodide exits ______ into the follicle via a ______ called ______.

thyroid cells, chloride-iodide counter-transporter, pendrin

IODIDE PUMP—THE SODIUM-IODIDE SYMPORTER (IODIDE TRAPPING) Iodide Transport and Thyroglobulin Thyroid epithelial cells also secrete ______, which contains ______ amino acids for ______.

thyroglobulin, tyrosine, iodine binding

Thyroglobulin and Thyroid Hormone Formation FORMATION AND SECRETION OF THYROGLOBULIN Thyroglobulin and Thyroid Hormone Formation Thyroid cells synthesize ______ in the ______ and ______, then secrete it into ______.

thyroglobulin, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, thyroid follicles

Thyroglobulin and Thyroid Hormone Formation FORMATION AND SECRETION OF THYROGLOBULIN Each thyroglobulin molecule contains ______ amino acids that bind with ______ to form ______ (______ and ______), which are stored in the ______ as a hormone reservoir.

tyrosine, iodine, thyroid hormones, T4, T3, follicular colloid

Thyroglobulin and Thyroid Hormone Formation OXIDATION OF IODIDE IONS Iodide ions are oxidized to form ______ or ______, a crucial step that allows iodine to bind with ______ for ______.

nascent iodine, triiodide, tyrosine, hormone synthesis

Thyroglobulin and Thyroid Hormone Formation OXIDATION OF IODIDE IONS The enzyme ______ and ______, located on the thyroid ______, catalyzes this process, and any dysfunction in ______ halts hormone production.

peroxidase, hydrogen peroxide, cell membrane, peroxidase

IODINATION OF TYROSINE AND THYROID HORMONE FORMATION—“ORGANIFICATION” OF THYROGLOBULIN Iodine binds to ______ through a process called ______, facilitated by ______.

thyroglobulin, organification, thyroid peroxidase

IODINATION OF TYROSINE AND THYROID HORMONE FORMATION—“ORGANIFICATION” OF THYROGLOBULIN This iodination process converts ______ residues to ______ and ______, which later couple to form ______.

tyrosine, monoiodotyrosine (MIT), diiodotyrosine (DIT), thyroid hormones

IODINATION OF TYROSINE AND THYROID HORMONE FORMATION—“ORGANIFICATION” OF THYROGLOBULIN Thyroxine (T4) is formed when two ______ combine, while triiodothyronine (T3) forms from coupling ______ with ______.

DIT molecules, MIT, DIT

STORAGE OF THYROGLOBULIN The thyroid gland stores ______ quantities of hormones in ______ form in the ______, enough to supply the body for ______-______ months.

large, thyroglobulin, follicles, 2, 3

STORAGE OF THYROGLOBULIN This reserve delays any ______ symptoms, even if ______ stops temporarily.

deficiency, hormone synthesis

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are cleaved from ______, rather than ______ circulating in the ______.

thyroglobulin, thyroglobulin, blood

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland Thyroid cells extend ______ to engulf ______ portions into ______, which fuse with ______ to form ______, where enzymes digest ______ to release ______ and ______, which then diffuse into the ______.

pseudopods, colloid, pinocytic vesicles, lysosomes, digestive vesicles, thyroglobulin, T4, T3, bloodstream

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland Some thyroglobulin binds to a protein called ______ on the thyroid ______ and enters cells via ______. This complex undergoes ______ to the cell's ______, where some thyroglobulin, with attached ______, is released into the ______.

megalin, cell membrane, endocytosis, transcytosis, basolateral membrane, megalin, bloodstream

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland About ______% of ______ in thyroglobulin remains as ______ and ______, not converted into thyroid hormones.

75, iodinated tyrosine, MIT, DIT

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland During digestion, the enzyme ______ removes iodine from ______ and ______ for recycling within the gland, a process disrupted if this enzyme is absent, leading to ______.

deiodinase, MIT, DIT, iodine deficiency

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland secretes around ______% T4 and ______% T3 daily, with about ______ of the T4 converted to T3 after release.

93, 7, half

Release of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine from the Thyroid Gland ______ is the primary hormone delivered to tissues, typically around ______ micrograms per day.

T3, 35

TRANSPORT OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE TO TISSUES BINDING OF THYROID HORMONES TO PLASMA PROTEINS Upon entering the bloodstream, over ______% of ______ and ______ bind immediately to ______ produced by the ______, primarily with ______, with some binding to ______ and ______. This binding keeps the hormones in ______ and regulates their release to tissues.

99, thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), plasma proteins, liver, thyroxine-binding globulin, prealbumin, albumin, circulation

TRANSPORT OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE TO TISSUES RELEASE OF THYROID HORMONES TO TISSUES Due to the strong affinity of ______ for thyroid hormones, ______ and ______ are ______ gradually to tissue cells, with ______ of T4 released every ______ days and ______ of T3 in about ______ day. Once inside cells, both hormones bind to ______, allowing for a slow, sustained release over ______ or ______.

plasma proteins, thyroxine, triiodothyronine, released, half, 6, half, 1, intracellular proteins, days, weeks

TRANSPORT OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE TO TISSUES ONSET AND DURATION OF THYROID HORMONE ACTION Thyroxine has a ______ onset of activity, taking ______-______ days to affect ______, reaching peak activity in ______-______ days, and gradually diminishing with a half-life of about ______ days; some effects persist up to ______ months.

delayed, 2, 3, metabolic rate, 10, 12, 15, 2

TRANSPORT OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE TO TISSUES ONSET AND DURATION OF THYROID HORMONE ACTION Triiodothyronine acts more ______, with effects starting within ______-______ hours and reaching maximum activity within ______-______ days.

rapidly, 6, 12, 2, 3

TRANSPORT OF THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE TO TISSUES The slow onset and extended duration of both hormones’ actions are due to their strong binding to ______ and ______, which controls their ______ and ______ in target cells.

plasma, intracellular proteins, release, function

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE THYROID HORMONES THYROID HORMONES ______ TRANSCRIPTION OF MANY GENES

INCREASE

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE THYROID HORMONES THYROID HORMONES INCREASE TRANSCRIPTION OF MANY GENES Most of the ______ Secreted by the Thyroid Is Converted to ______. Thyroid Hormones Activate ______.

Thyroxine, Triiodothyronine, Nuclear Receptors

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE THYROID HORMONES THYROID HORMONES ______ CELLULAR METABOLIC ACTIVITY

INCREASE

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE THYROID HORMONES THYROID HORMONES INCREASE CELLULAR METABOLIC ACTIVITY Thyroid Hormones Increase the ______ and ______ of ______. Thyroid Hormones Increase ______ of Ions Through ______.

Number, Activity, Mitochondria, Active Transport, Cell Membranes

EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE ON GROWTH In children with insufficient thyroid hormone production (______), ______ is significantly impaired, leading to ______ stature and developmental ______.

hypothyroidism, growth, shorter, delays

EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE ON GROWTH Conversely, children with excessive thyroid hormone (______) experience accelerated ______, resulting in increased ______ at a younger age. However, this rapid growth also leads to early maturation of ______ and premature closure of ______, which can ultimately ______ the overall growth period and final adult height.

hyperthyroidism, skeletal growth, height, bones, epiphyses, shorten

EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE ON GROWTH Thyroid hormone plays a critical role in the growth and development of the ______, particularly during ______ development and the first few ______ after ______.

brain, fetal, years, birth

EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE ON GROWTH Insufficient levels of thyroid hormone in the fetus can lead to impaired brain ______ and ______, resulting in a ______ brain size.

growth, maturation, smaller-than-normal

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS:

1. STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 2. STIMULATION OF FAT METABOLISM 3. EFFECT ON PLASMA AND LIVER FATS 4. MECHANISM OF CHOLESTEROL REGULATION 5. INCREASED REQUIREMENT FOR VITAMINS 6. INCREASED BASAL METABOLIC RATE 7. DECREASED BODY WEIGHT 8. INCREASED BLOOD FLOW AND CARDIAC OUTPUT 9. INCREASED HEART RATE 10. INCREASED HEART STRENGTH 11. NORMAL ARTERIAL PRESSURE 12. INCREASED RESPIRATION 13. INCREASED GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY 14. EXCITATORY EFFECTS ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 15. EFFECT ON MUSCLE FUNCTION 16. MUSCLE TREMOR 17. EFFECT ON SLEEP 18. EFFECT ON OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS 19. EFFECT ON SEXUAL FUNCTION

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM ______: Promotes rapid uptake of glucose by cells.

Increased Glucose Uptake

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM ______: Boosts the breakdown of glucose for energy.

Enhanced Glycolysis

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM ______: Increases the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Enhanced Gluconeogenesis

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM ______: Improves the absorption of glucose from the digestive tract.

Increased Gastrointestinal Absorption

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM ______: Stimulates the pancreas to release more insulin, further affecting carbohydrate metabolism.

Increased Insulin Secretion

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM These effects are primarily due to the upregulation of cellular ______ influenced by ______.

metabolic enzymes, thyroid hormone

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF FAT METABOLISM ______: Increases the release of lipids from fat tissue, resulting in a greater ______ of body fat stores

Mobilization of Lipids, reduction

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF FAT METABOLISM ______: Raises plasma concentrations of free fatty acids, which are then utilized by cells for energy.

Increased Free Fatty Acids

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: STIMULATION OF FAT METABOLISM ______: Promotes the rapid oxidation of free fatty acids in various tissues.

Acceleration of Fat Oxidation

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: EFFECT ON PLASMA AND LIVER FATS Plasma and Liver Fats: Thyroid hormone decreases ______, ______, and ______ in the blood, while increasing ______. ______ thyroid levels lead to ______ cholesterol and fat accumulation in the liver, increasing the risk of ______.

cholesterol, phospholipids, triglycerides, free fatty acids, Low, higher, atherosclerosis

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: EFFECT ON PLASMA AND LIVER FATS Cholesterol Reduction Mechanism: Thyroid hormone enhances ______ in ______, likely by increasing liver ______, which accelerate ______ from the bloodstream.

cholesterol excretion, bile, LDL receptors, LDL clearance

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: MECHANISM OF CHOLESTEROL REGULATION Bile Secretion: Thyroid hormone enhances the secretion of ______ in ______, leading to increased loss of ______ in ______.

cholesterol, bile, cholesterol, feces

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: MECHANISM OF CHOLESTEROL REGULATION LDL Receptors: It induces the production of ______ receptors in ______ cells, promoting the removal of ______ from the ______ and facilitating ______ from the ______.

low-density lipoprotein (LDL), liver, LDL, bloodstream, cholesterol secretion, liver

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: Excitatory Effects on the Central Nervous System: Thyroid hormone ______ the speed of ______; ______ often leads to heightened ______ and symptoms of ______ and ______. Conversely, ______ thyroid hormone levels result in ______ cognitive function and ______ thought processes.

increases, cognitive processes, hyperthyroidism, nervousness, anxiety, paranoia, low, decreased, slower

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: Effect on Muscle Function: A slight increase in thyroid hormone enhances ______, while excessive levels can ______ muscles due to increased ______. In contrast, low thyroid hormone leads to ______ muscle reactions and ______ relaxation following contraction.

muscle responsiveness, weaken, protein breakdown, sluggish, slower

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: Muscle Tremor: Hyperthyroidism is characterized by a fine ______ that occurs at a frequency of ______ to ______ times per second, distinct from ______ seen in conditions like ______. This tremor results from increased ______ in the ______ and serves as a significant indicator of thyroid hormone effects on the nervous system.

muscle tremor, 10, 15, coarse tremors, Parkinson’s disease, synaptic activity, spinal cord

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: Effect on Sleep: Individuals with ______ often experience constant ______ due to the exhausting effects of thyroid hormone, but sleep can be elusive because of heightened ______. Conversely, those with ______ may experience extreme ______, with sleep durations reaching ______ to ______ hours per day.

hyperthyroidism, fatigue, excitability, hypothyroidism, drowsiness, 12, 14

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: Effect on Other Endocrine Glands: ______ levels of thyroid hormone stimulate the secretion of various endocrine glands, raising the tissue demand for hormones such as ______ and ______. Additionally, thyroid hormone enhances the ______ of ______ in the liver, which leads to increased production of ______ and greater ______ from the ______.

Increased, insulin, parathyroid hormone, inactivation, adrenal glucocorticoids, adrenocorticotropic hormone, glucocorticoid secretion, adrenal glands

EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONE ON SPECIFIC BODY FUNCTIONS: Effect on Sexual Function: Normal thyroid hormone levels are essential for healthy sexual function; men with ______ levels may experience decreased ______, while ______ levels can lead to ______. In women, ______ thyroid hormone often causes ______ and ______, but can also result in ______ or ______; hyperthyroidism is commonly associated with reduced ______ and occasional ______, reflecting the complex influence of thyroid hormones on sexual health.

low, libido, excessive, impotence, low, menorrhagia, polymenorrhea, irregular periods, amenorrhea, menstrual flow, amenorrhea

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion The secretion of thyroid hormones is regulated through specific feedback mechanisms involving the ______ and ______, ensuring appropriate ______ in the body.

hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, metabolic activity levels

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion TSH, produced by the ______, increases the secretion of ______ and ______ from the ______.

anterior pituitary gland, thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroid gland

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion Specific Effects of TSH on the Thyroid Gland:

1. Increased proteolysis of thyroglobulin 2. Increased activity of the iodide pump 3. Increased iodination of tyrosine 4. Increased size and increased secretory activity of the thyroid cells 5. Increased number of thyroid cells

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion ______, serves as a second messenger mediating the effects of ______ on thyroid cells.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion TSH binds to specific receptors on the thyroid ______, activating ______ and increasing ______.

cell membrane, adenylyl cyclase, cAMP production

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion Elevated cAMP activates ______, leading to immediate ______ of ______ and prolonged ______ of ______, paralleling cAMP's function in other target tissues.

protein kinase, secretion, thyroid hormones, growth, thyroid tissue

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion The anterior pituitary's secretion of ______ is regulated by ______ from the ______, specifically synthesized in the ______ and transported to the ______ via the ______ blood system.

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus (PVN), anterior pituitary, hypothalamic-hypophysial portal

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion TRH, a ______, binds to receptors on ______ cells, activating the ______. This results in a cascade involving ______ and ______, leading to the release of ______.

tripeptide amide, pituitary, phospholipase second messenger system, calcium ions, diacyl glycerol, TSH

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion ______ is a known stimulant for TRH secretion, which in turn increases ______ and ______, significantly raising the ______. Conversely, prolonged ______ decreases TRH and TSH secretion due to reduced ______ levels, lowering metabolic rates to conserve energy.

Cold exposure, TSH output, thyroid hormone levels, basal metabolic rate, fasting, leptin

Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion Emotional reactions such as ______ and ______ can acutely decrease ______, likely due to increased ______ and ______, which ______ affect the ______.

excitement, anxiety, TSH secretion, metabolic rate, body heat, inversely, hypothalamic heat control center

FEEDBACK EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE TO DECREASE ANTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETION OF TSH ______ levels of thyroid hormones in the bloodstream lead to a ______ in TSH secretion from the ______.

Increased, decrease, anterior pituitary gland

FEEDBACK EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE TO DECREASE ANTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETION OF TSH When thyroid hormone secretion rises to approximately ______ times the normal level, TSH secretion can fall nearly to ______, indicating a strong ______ mechanism.

1.75, zero, negative feedback

FEEDBACK EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE TO DECREASE ANTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETION OF TSH This feedback inhibition primarily occurs directly at the ______ level, as evidenced by its persistence even when the ______ is separated from the ______. Additionally, thyroid hormones may also inhibit the release of ______ from the ______.

anterior pituitary, pituitary, hypothalamus, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), hypothalamus

FEEDBACK EFFECT OF THYROID HORMONE TO DECREASE ANTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETION OF TSH This feedback mechanism ensures the maintenance of stable concentrations of free ______ in the circulation, contributing to ______ within the body.

thyroid hormones, homeostasis

Diseases of the Thyroid ______ is a condition marked by the overproduction of thyroid hormones, leading to increased metabolic activity.

Hyperthyroidism

Diseases of the Thyroid HYPERTHYROIDISM It often results from ______, an autoimmune disorder where ______ continuously activate the thyroid gland. Other causes can include ______, which are tumors that secrete excess hormones independently.

Graves’ disease, thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), thyroid adenomas

Diseases of the Thyroid HYPERTHYROIDISM Symptoms:

1. Increased Excitability: Heightened nervousness and emotional instability. 2. Heat Intolerance 3. Excessive Sweating 4. Weight Loss 5. Diarrhea 6. Muscle Weakness 7. Extreme Fatigue 8. Tremor 9. Exophthalmos: Protrusion of the eyeballs, which can lead to complications like dry eyes and potential vision loss.

Diseases of the Thyroid ______ is a condition characterized by reduced secretion of thyroid hormones, leading to effects that are generally opposite to those of hyperthyroidism.

Hypothyroidism

Diseases of the Thyroid HYPOTHYROIDISM This condition is often caused by ______ of the thyroid gland, as seen in ______, where inflammation (______) progressively deteriorates the gland, resulting in ______ and diminished ______.

autoimmune destruction, Hashimoto’s disease, thyroiditis, fibrosis, hormone production

Diseases of the Thyroid HYPOTHYROIDISM Additionally, hypothyroidism can lead to the development of ______, particularly in regions with ______.

goiters, dietary iodine deficiency

Diseases of the Thyroid HYPOTHYROIDISM Symptoms:

1. Fatigue and weakness 2. Weight gain 3. Cold intolerance 4. Dry skin and hair 5. Hair loss 6. Constipation 7. Muscle weakness and cramps 8. Depression or mood changes 9. Slow heart rate 10. Hoarseness 11. Swelling of the face and around the eyes 12. Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter)

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal glands: Located ______ each ______; weigh about ______ grams each

above, kidney, 4

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal glands: Consist of two main parts: ______ and ______

adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal medulla: Central ______% of gland; linked to ______

20, sympathetic nervous system

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal medulla: Secretes ______ and ______ in response to ______

epinephrine, norepinephrine, sympathetic stimulation

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal medulla: Hormones mimic effects of direct ______ stimulation throughout the body

sympathetic nerve

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal cortex: Secretes ______, all derived from ______

corticosteroids, cholesterol

Adrenocortical Hormones Adrenal cortex: Minor structural differences in ______ lead to various essential functions

corticosteroids

Adrenal Medulla The medulla is the ______ of your adrenal gland.

inner part

Adrenal Medulla It releases hormones that regulate your ______. This system controls ______ functions (______).

autonomic nervous system, involuntary, heart rate

Adrenal Medulla Blood supply: ______ branch from blood vessels such as the ______, ______ and ______.

Adrenal arteries, inferior phrenic artery, renal artery, abdominal aorta

Adrenal Medulla Nerve supply: The ______ helps your medulla communicate with the rest of your body.

greater splanchnic nerve

Adrenal Medulla ______: These cells contain tiny granules. When ______ trigger a stress response, ______ release their granules. This sends ______ and ______ into your bloodstream.

Chromaffin cells, splanchnic nerve cells, chromaffin cells, adrenaline, noradrenaline

CATECHOLAMINES: ______, ______, and ______

Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, Dopamine

CATECHOLAMINES: Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, and Dopamine ______, ______, and small amounts of ______ are synthesized by the ______

Norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, adrenal medulla

CATECHOLAMINES: Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, and Dopamine Act both as ______ and ______ vital to the maintenance of ______ through the ______.

neurotransmitters, hormones, homeostasis, autonomic nervous system

CATECHOLAMINES: Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, and Dopamine Responsible for the body’s “______” response (response to ______ or ______ stress).

fight-or-flight, emotional, physical

CATECHOLAMINES: Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, and Dopamine After using the hormones, your body eliminates the remaining waste through ______.

urine

______, or ______ This neurotransmitter helps the body respond to stress. ______ release increases a person’s ______ and ______. It is also involved in ______ and the ability to ______.

Noradrenaline, norepinephrine, Noradrenaline, heart rate, blood pressure, mood regulation, concentrate

______, or ______ This neurotransmitter is responsible for the fight-or-flight response. When a person experiences stress, the body releases ______ to allow increased ______ to the ______, ______, and ______.

Adrenaline, epinephrine, adrenaline, blood flow, muscles, heart, lungs

______ This neurotransmitter sends signals throughout the nervous system.

Dopamine

Dopamine It helps regulate the following:

movement emotions memory the brain’s reward mechanism

CONDITIONS AFFECT THE ADRENAL MEDULLA Adrenal medullary tumors include:

Ganglioneuroma Neuroblastoma Paraganglioma Pheochromocytoma

CONDITIONS AFFECT THE ADRENAL MEDULLA Adrenal medullary tumors include: ______, a tumor occurring in adults and children that develops in autonomic nervous system cells.

Ganglioneuroma

CONDITIONS AFFECT THE ADRENAL MEDULLA Adrenal medullary tumors include: ______, a cancer in nerve tissue that often affects children. It can also develop in your abdomen, chest or spinal cord.

Neuroblastoma

CONDITIONS AFFECT THE ADRENAL MEDULLA Adrenal medullary tumors include: ______, a tumor made of tissue (chromaffin) that's found in your adrenal glands. It forms in the peripheral nervous system and affects your limbs, head, neck and abdomen.

Paraganglioma

CONDITIONS AFFECT THE ADRENAL MEDULLA Adrenal medullary tumors include: ______, tumor affecting the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. This condition causes dangerous blood pressure spikes (hypertensive crisis).

Pheochromocytoma

CORTICOSTEROIDS: ______, ______, AND ______

MINERALOCORTICOIDS, GLUCOCORTICOIDS, ANDROGENS

The adrenal cortex secretes three main hormone types:

Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Androgens

The adrenal cortex secretes three main hormone types: ______ (mainly ______), which regulate electrolytes, particularly sodium and potassium.

Mineralocorticoids, aldosterone

The adrenal cortex secretes three main hormone types: ______ (primarily ______), which help increase blood glucose levels and affect protein and fat metabolism.

Glucocorticoids, cortisol

The adrenal cortex secretes three main hormone types: ______, small amounts of sex hormones with testosterone-like effects, usually minor but can cause masculinizing effects if overproduced due to adrenal disorders.

Androgens

While over ______ steroids are produced in the adrenal cortex, ______ and ______ are the most essential for normal body function.

30, aldosterone, cortisol

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions:

Zona glomerulosa Zona fasciculata Zona reticularis

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions: ______ (outer layer, ~______%)

Zona glomerulosa, 15

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions: Zona glomerulosa - Secretes ______ due to the enzyme ______ - Regulated by ______ and ______

aldosterone, aldosterone synthase, angiotensin II, potassium levels

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions: ______ (middle layer, ~______%)

Zona fasciculata, 75

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions: Zona fasciculata - Produces ______ (______, ______) and small amounts of ______ and ______ - Controlled by ______ from the ______

glucocorticoids, cortisol, corticosterone, androgens, estrogens, ACTH, hypothalamic-pituitary axis

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions: ______ (inner layer)

Zona reticularis

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES The adrenal cortex has three layers, each with distinct functions: Zona reticularis - Secretes adrenal ______ (______, ______), ______, and some ______ - Primarily regulated by ______; ______ may also play a role

androgens, DHEA, androstenedione, estrogens, glucocorticoids, ACTH, cortical androgen-stimulating hormone

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES Regulation: ______ (zona glomerulosa) is controlled separately from ______ and ______ (zona fasciculata and reticularis)

Aldosterone secretion, cortisol, androgen production

SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION OF ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES Regulation: ______ affects only the zona glomerulosa, while ______ affects only the inner two layers

Angiotensin II, ACTH

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS— ALDOSTERONE Mineralocorticoid Deficiency Causes Severe Renal ______ and ______.

Sodium Chloride Wasting, Hyperkalemia

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS— ALDOSTERONE ______ Is the Major Mineralocorticoid Secreted by the Adrenals

Aldosterone

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS— ALDOSTERONE Mineralocorticoid Deficiency Causes Severe Renal Sodium Chloride Wasting and Hyperkalemia. Mineralocorticoid deficiency causes significant loss of ______ and ______, excess ______, reduced ______, and low ______, potentially leading to ______ within days unless treated with mineralocorticoids.

sodium, chloride, potassium, blood volume, cardiac output, fatal shock

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS— ALDOSTERONE Mineralocorticoid Deficiency Causes Severe Renal Sodium Chloride Wasting and Hyperkalemia. Mineralocorticoids are essential "______" hormones for maintaining ______, while glucocorticoids are crucial for managing ______ and ______.

lifesaving, electrolyte balance, physical, mental stress

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS— ALDOSTERONE Aldosterone Is the Major Mineralocorticoid Secreted by the Adrenals Aldosterone regulates ______ and ______ balance, but ______ can also activate aldosterone’s receptors. The ______ enzyme in the kidneys converts ______ to a form that doesn’t bind to these receptors, letting aldosterone work properly.

salt, water, cortisol, 11β-HSD2, cortisol

FUNCTIONS OF MINERALOCORTICOIDS— ALDOSTERONE Aldosterone Is the Major Mineralocorticoid Secreted by the Adrenals ______ occurs when 11β-HSD2 is deficient or blocked (e.g., by excess licorice), allowing ______ to mimic ______, causing similar effects despite ______ aldosterone levels.

Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess (AME) syndrome, cortisol, aldosterone, low

RENAL AND CIRCULATORY EFFECTS OF ALDOSTERONE:

Aldosterone Increases Renal Tubular Reabsorption of Sodium and Secretion of Potassium. Excess Aldosterone Increases Extracellular Fluid Volume and Arterial Pressure But Has Only a Small Effect on Plasma Sodium Concentration; Aldosterone Deficiency Causes Hyponatremia. Excess Aldosterone Causes Hypokalemia and Muscle Weakness; Aldosterone Deficiency Causes Hyperkalemia and Cardiac Toxicity. Excess Aldosterone Increases Tubular Hydrogen Ion Secretion and Causes Alkalosis.

RENAL AND CIRCULATORY EFFECTS OF ALDOSTERONE: Aldosterone Increases Renal Tubular Reabsorption of Sodium and Secretion of Potassium. Aldosterone conserves ______ and removes ______ by increasing ______ and ______ in ______, keeping sodium levels ______ and potassium levels ______ in the extracellular fluid.

sodium, potassium, sodium reabsorption, potassium excretion, kidney tubules, high, low

RENAL AND CIRCULATORY EFFECTS OF ALDOSTERONE: Excess Aldosterone Increases Extracellular Fluid Volume and Arterial Pressure But Has Only a Small Effect on Plasma Sodium Concentration; Aldosterone Deficiency Causes Hyponatremia. Aldosterone helps balance ______ and ______ levels: It retains ______ in the kidneys, increasing ______ and ______. This leads to "______," where blood pressure rises temporarily, then stabilizes through increased kidney excretion of ______ and ______.

sodium, fluid, sodium, extracellular fluid, blood pressure, aldosterone escape, sodium, water

RENAL AND CIRCULATORY EFFECTS OF ALDOSTERONE: Excess Aldosterone Causes Hypokalemia and Muscle Weakness; Aldosterone Deficiency Causes Hyperkalemia and Cardiac Toxicity. By promoting ______ in urine and ______ into cells, ______ aldosterone levels can significantly lower ______, leading to severe muscle ______ due to impaired nerve and muscle function.

potassium loss, movement, high, plasma potassium, weakness

RENAL AND CIRCULATORY EFFECTS OF ALDOSTERONE: Excess Aldosterone Increases Tubular Hydrogen Ion Secretion and Causes Alkalosis. In the kidneys, aldosterone promotes ______ release in exchange for potassium, especially in the ______.

hydrogen ion, cortical collecting tubules

ALDOSTERONE STIMULATES ______ AND ______ TRANSPORT IN ______ GLANDS, ______ GLANDS, AND ______ CELLS

SODIUM, POTASSIUM, SWEAT, SALIVARY, INTESTINAL EPITHELIAL

ALDOSTERONE STIMULATES SODIUM AND POTASSIUM TRANSPORT IN SWEAT GLANDS, SALIVARY GLANDS, AND INTESTINAL EPITHELIAL CELLS Sodium Conservation: Aldosterone increases ______ in ______ and ______ glands, helping conserve body salt in ______ conditions and during excessive ______.

sodium chloride reabsorption, sweat, salivary, hot, saliva loss

ALDOSTERONE STIMULATES SODIUM AND POTASSIUM TRANSPORT IN SWEAT GLANDS, SALIVARY GLANDS, AND INTESTINAL EPITHELIAL CELLS Intestinal Absorption: It enhances ______ in the ______, particularly in the ______, preventing ______ in stools; without ______, sodium absorption is poor, leading to ______ and ______.

sodium absorption, intestines, colon, sodium loss, aldosterone, diarrhea, salt loss

CELLULAR MECHANISM OF ALDOSTERONE ACTION Aldosterone Action Mechanism: Aldosterone diffuses into ______ cells and binds to specific ______, leading to the formation of ______ that codes for proteins involved in ______ and ______ transport.

renal tubular, mineralocorticoid receptors (MR), messenger RNA (mRNA), sodium, potassium

CELLULAR MECHANISM OF ALDOSTERONE ACTION Protein Formation and Effects: The ______ guides the production of transport proteins, including ______ and ______, facilitating increased ______ and ______ over several hours, with effects starting around ______ minutes after aldosterone's action.

mRNA, sodium-potassium ATPase, ion channels, sodium reabsorption, potassium secretion, 45

POSSIBLE NONGENOMIC ACTIONS OF ALDOSTERONE AND OTHER STEROID HORMONES Nongenomic Effects of Aldosterone: Aldosterone can produce rapid effects within ______ to ______ by binding to ______, activating ______ like ______ and ______, independent of ______.

seconds, minutes, cell membrane receptors, second messenger systems, cyclic AMP (cAMP), phosphatidylinositol pathways, gene transcription

REGULATION OF ALDOSTERONE SECRETION Key Regulators of Aldosterone Secretion: Aldosterone secretion is mainly influenced by high ______ and ______, which significantly ______ its release. Conversely, high ______ and ______ can decrease aldosterone secretion, while ______ has a minor role, mainly ensuring that aldosterone can be produced when needed.

potassium levels, angiotensin II, increase, sodium levels, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

REGULATION OF ALDOSTERONE SECRETION Feedback Mechanisms: When ______ increases or ______ to the kidneys decreases, aldosterone helps the kidneys remove excess ______ and boosts ______ and ______, helping to restore balance in the body.

potassium, blood flow, potassium, blood volume, pressure

FUNCTIONS OF GLUCOCORTICOIDS Role of Mineralocorticoids vs. Glucocorticoids: While mineralocorticoids are essential for survival after ______, they do not ______ normal metabolic functions or stress resistance, making ______ equally vital for long-term health and survival.

adrenalectomy, restore, glucocorticoids

FUNCTIONS OF GLUCOCORTICOIDS Primary Glucocorticoid Activity: ______, or ______, accounts for at least ______% of glucocorticoid activity in the body, with ______ contributing a smaller yet significant portion.

Cortisol, hydrocortisone, 95, corticosterone

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM:

Stimulation of Gluconeogenesis. Decreased Glucose Utilization by Cells. Elevated Blood Glucose Concentration and “Adrenal Diabetes.”

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM: Stimulation of Gluconeogenesis. Cortisol significantly enhances ______ in the ______ by increasing the production of ______ needed to convert ______ into ______, mobilizing ______ from ______, and antagonizing ______'s inhibitory effects on ______.

gluconeogenesis, liver, enzymes, amino acids, glucose, amino acids, muscles, insulin, glucose production

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM: Decreased Glucose Utilization by Cells. Cortisol decreases the amount of ______ that cells use by preventing the glucose transporter ______ from moving to the ______, particularly in ______ cells. This leads to ______, making it harder for cells to take in ______.

glucose, GLUT 4, cell membrane, muscle, insulin resistance, glucose

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM: Elevated Blood Glucose Concentration and “Adrenal Diabetes.” ______ production of glucose and ______ use of it by the body's cells lead to higher ______. This triggers the ______ to release more ______, but the body's cells don't respond well to the insulin, especially in ______ and ______.

Increased, reduced, blood sugar levels, pancreas, insulin, muscles, fat

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON PROTEIN METABOLISM:

Cortisol Increases Liver and Plasma Proteins. Reduction in Cellular Protein. Increased Blood Amino Acids, Diminished Transport of Amino Acids Into Extrahepatic Cells, and Enhanced Transport Into Hepatic Cells.

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON PROTEIN METABOLISM: Cortisol Increases Liver and Plasma Proteins. This increase in ______ may be due to cortisol enhancing the transport of ______ into ______ cells and boosting the activity of ______ involved in ______ within the ______.

liver proteins, amino acids, liver, enzymes, protein synthesis, liver

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON PROTEIN METABOLISM: Reduction in Cellular Protein. Cortisol decreases ______ in most cells (except ______ cells) by reducing ______ and increasing the ______ of existing proteins, particularly in ______ and ______ tissues.

protein levels, liver, protein synthesis, breakdown, muscle, lymphoid

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON PROTEIN METABOLISM: Increased Blood Amino Acids, Diminished Transport of Amino Acids Into Extrahepatic Cells, and Enhanced Transport Into Hepatic Cells. Cortisol decreases the transport of ______ into ______ and other ______ cells, reducing their ______ while continuing to ______ proteins, leading to increased plasma ______.

amino acids, muscle, non-liver, protein synthesis, break down, amino acid levels

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON FAT METABOLISM:

Mobilization of Fatty Acids. Excess Cortisol Causes Obesity.

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON FAT METABOLISM: Mobilization of Fatty Acids. Cortisol promotes the release of ______ from ______, increasing their levels in the ______ and enhancing their use for ______, particularly during times of ______ or ______.

fatty acids, adipose tissue, plasma, energy, stress, starvation

EFFECTS OF CORTISOL ON FAT METABOLISM: Excess Cortisol Causes Obesity. Excess cortisol secretion can lead to a specific type of ______ characterized by fat accumulation in the ______ and ______, resulting in a "______" torso and a rounded "______."

obesity, chest, head, buffalo-like, moon face

CORTISOL IS IMPORTANT IN RESISTING STRESS AND INFLAMMATION Stress Response Activation: Almost any type of stress, whether ______ (like ______ or ______) or ______, triggers a rapid increase in ______ from the ______, leading to a significant rise in ______ from the ______ within ______.

physical, trauma, surgery, neurogenic, ACTH secretion, anterior pituitary gland, cortisol levels, adrenal cortex, minutes

CORTISOL IS IMPORTANT IN RESISTING STRESS AND INFLAMMATION The following list details some of the different types of stress that increase cortisol release:

1. Trauma 2. Infection 3. Intense heat or cold 4. Injection of norepinephrine and other sympathomimetic drugs 5. Surgery 6. Injection of necrotizing substances beneath the skin 7. Restraining an animal so it cannot move 8. Debilitating diseases

CORTISOL IS IMPORTANT IN RESISTING STRESS AND INFLAMMATION Increased cortisol secretion during stress may benefit the animal by rapidly mobilizing ______ and ______ from cellular stores, providing immediate energy and raw materials for synthesizing essential compounds like ______.

amino acids, fats, glucose

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY EFFECTS OF HIGH LEVELS OF CORTISOL Cortisol's Anti-Inflammatory Effects: High levels of cortisol can effectively ______ or ______ inflammation caused by ______ or ______, which can be particularly damaging in conditions like ______.

block, reverse, trauma, infection, rheumatoid arthritis

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY EFFECTS OF HIGH LEVELS OF CORTISOL Inflammation Process: Inflammation involves the release of ______, increased ______, ______ leakage, ______ infiltration, and eventual ______ healing. Cortisol can either ______ the onset of inflammation or ______ its resolution and healing if it has already begun.

chemicals, blood flow, plasma, white blood cell, tissue, prevent, speed up

CORTISOL PREVENTS THE DEVELOPMENT OF INFLAMMATION BY STABILIZING LYSOSOMES AND BY OTHER EFFECTS. Cortisol prevents inflammation through several key mechanisms:

1. Stabilizes Lysosomal Membranes 2. Decreases Capillary Permeability 3. Inhibits White Blood Cell Migration 4. Suppresses Immune Response 5. Reduces Fever

CORTISOL PREVENTS THE DEVELOPMENT OF INFLAMMATION BY STABILIZING LYSOSOMES AND BY OTHER EFFECTS. Cortisol can rapidly reduce established ______ and enhance ______ within hours to days by blocking ______ and mobilizing resources like ______, ______, and ______ for tissue repair.

inflammation, healing, inflammatory factors, amino acids, glucose, fatty acids

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND ______ Stimulates Cortisol Secretion

ACTH

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND Cortisol secretion is primarily regulated by ______ from the ______, unlike aldosterone, which is controlled by ______ and ______; ______ also stimulates ______.

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), anterior pituitary gland, potassium, angiotensin II, ACTH, adrenal androgen production

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND ACTH Secretion Is Controlled by ______ From the ______

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor, Hypothalamus

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND ACTH secretion is regulated by ______ from the ______, which travels through the ______ to the ______, where it stimulates ACTH release; without ______, only ______ ACTH is secreted.

corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), hypothalamus, hypophysial portal system, anterior pituitary gland, CRF, minimal

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND ACTH Activates ______ to Produce Steroids by Increasing ______

Adrenocortical Cells, cAMP

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND ACTH activates adrenocortical cells by increasing ______, which stimulates ______ that convert ______ to ______—a key, rate-limiting step in hormone production; long-term ACTH stimulation also leads to cell ______ and increased ______ in the ______.

cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), enzymes, cholesterol, pregnenolone, growth, secretion, adrenal cortex

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND Physiological Stress ______ ACTH and Adrenocortical Secretion

Increases

REGULATION OF CORTISOL SECRETION BY ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE FROM THE PITUITARY GLAND Physical or mental stress triggers rapid ______ and ______ release, with signals from pain or emotional responses reaching the ______, leading to ______ that can rise up to ______-fold within minutes.

ACTH, cortisol, hypothalamus, cortisol levels, 20

Synthesis and Secretion of ACTH in Association With Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone, Lipotropin, and Endorphin ACTH is derived from the precursor protein ______, which also produces several other peptides, such as ______, ______, and ______, depending on tissue-specific enzymes. High ______ levels can increase production of these peptides, especially in conditions like ______.

POMC, MSH, β-lipotropin, β-endorphin, ACTH, Addison’s disease

Synthesis and Secretion of ACTH in Association With Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone, Lipotropin, and Endorphin ______ and ______ influence skin pigmentation by promoting ______ production in ______; ______ plays a larger role in humans due to its abundance and partial ______ effect.

MSH, ACTH, melanin, melanocytes, ACTH, MSH-like

ADRENAL ANDROGENS Adrenal androgens, mainly ______, are ______ male sex hormones secreted by the ______, influencing early male development and contributing to ______ and ______ hair growth in females by being partly converted to ______ in extra-adrenal tissues.

dehydroepiandrosterone, weak, adrenal cortex, pubic, axillary, testosterone

Abnormalities of Adrenocortical Secretion ______ (______) This condition arises from insufficient production of adrenocortical hormones, usually due to ______ atrophy or injury, leading to ______ (resulting in sodium, chloride, and water loss) and ______ (impairing glucose synthesis and causing adrenal crises during stress).

Hypoadrenalism, Addison’s Disease, adrenal cortex, mineralocorticoid deficiency, glucocorticoid deficiency

Abnormalities of Adrenocortical Secretion ______ (______) Characterized by excess ACTH or adrenal tumors, this results in high ______ levels, leading to fat redistribution (______, ______), ______, and other symptoms; diagnosis can be confirmed through ______.

Hyperadrenalism, Cushing’s Syndrome, cortisol, buffalo torso, moon face, hypertension, dexamethasone testing

Abnormalities of Adrenocortical Secretion ______ (______) Often caused by an adrenal tumor, this syndrome results in excessive aldosterone secretion, leading to ______, mild ______, increased ______ and ______, with treatment options including ______ or mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists like ______.

Primary Aldosteronism, Conn’s Syndrome, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, blood volume, hypertension, surgery, spironolactone

Abnormalities of Adrenocortical Secretion ______ Caused by an adrenal tumor that secretes excess androgens, leading to masculinizing effects in females (such as ______ and ______) and accelerated male sexual organ development in prepubertal boys, along with significantly elevated urinary ______ levels for diagnosis.

Adrenogenital Syndrome, beard growth, clitoral enlargement, 17-ketosteroid

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas The pancreas consists of two main types of tissues: ______, which secrete digestive juices into the duodenum, and ______, which secrete insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream.

acini, islets of Langerhans

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas The human pancreas contains ______ to ______ million islets, each about ______ mm in diameter, organized around ______.

1, 2, 0.3, small capillaries

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas The islets are made up of three major cell types:

Beta cells Alpha cells Delta cells

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas The islets are made up of three major cell types: ______ (______%): Secrete insulin and amylin.

Beta cells, 60

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas The islets are made up of three major cell types: ______ (______%): Secrete glucagon.

Alpha cells, 25

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas The islets are made up of three major cell types: ______ (______%): Secrete somatostatin.

Delta cells, 10

Physiological Anatomy of the Pancreas Additionally, ______ produce pancreatic polypeptide. The interrelations among these cell types facilitate cell-to-cell communication and the regulation of ______; for example, insulin inhibits ______, while amylin inhibits ______ and somatostatin inhibits both ______ and ______.

PP cells, hormone secretion, glucagon secretion, insulin secretion, insulin, glucagon

INSULIN AND ITS METABOLIC EFFECTS Insulin was first isolated from the ______ in ______ by ______, dramatically improving the health and survival of patients with severe ______.

pancreas, 1922, Banting and Best, diabetes mellitus

INSULIN AND ITS METABOLIC EFFECTS While insulin is primarily known for its role in ______ and managing ______, it also significantly impacts ______, which can lead to complications like ______ and ______.

carbohydrate metabolism, blood sugar levels, fat metabolism, acidosis, arteriosclerosis

INSULIN AND ITS METABOLIC EFFECTS Additionally, untreated diabetes results in a reduced ability to ______, causing tissue wasting and various cellular dysfunctions. Thus, insulin plays a crucial role in the metabolism of ______, ______, and ______.

synthesize proteins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins

INSULIN IS A HORMONE ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY ABUNDANCE Insulin secretion is associated with ______. When a person’s diet includes an abundance of foods providing ______, especially excess ______, insulin secretion ______.

energy abundance, energy, carbohydrates, increases

INSULIN IS A HORMONE ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY ABUNDANCE Insulin plays an important role in storing excess ______. Excess carbohydrates are stored as ______ in the ______ and ______. Any carbohydrates that cannot be stored as ______ are converted into ______ and stored in ______.

energy, glycogen, liver, muscles, glycogen, fats, adipose tissue

INSULIN IS A HORMONE ASSOCIATED WITH ENERGY ABUNDANCE For proteins, insulin promotes ______ by cells and converts these ______ into ______, while also ______ the breakdown of proteins in cells.

amino acid uptake, amino acids, protein, inhibiting

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Human insulin, with a molecular weight of ______, consists of ______ amino acid chains linked by ______. It is synthesized in ______ from ______ to form ______, which is cleaved to ______ and then to ______, which includes the ______. Both insulin and C peptide are secreted in ______ amounts, with some ______ remaining.

5808, two, disulfide bonds, beta cells, insulin RNA, preproinsulin, proinsulin, insulin, C peptide, equimolar, proinsulin

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS ______ can activate certain enzyme systems and is measured in patients to assess insulin production. Insulin circulates mostly in an ______ form, has a ______ of about ______ minutes, and is primarily degraded in the ______. Rapid ______ is crucial for effective insulin regulation.

C peptide, unbound, half-life, 6, liver, clearance

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Insulin initiates its effects by binding to a ______ (molecular weight ~______), composed of two ______ outside the cell and two ______ that penetrate the membrane. Binding of insulin leads to ______ of the ______, activating a ______ that phosphorylates various intracellular enzymes, including ______.The overall effect is to ______ some enzymes while ______ others, allowing insulin to direct the intracellular metabolic machinery to achieve its desired metabolic effects.

membrane receptor protein, 300,000, alpha subunits, beta subunits, autophosphorylation, beta subunits, tyrosine kinase, insulin receptor substrates (IRS), activate, inactivating

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Insulin binding results in several important metabolic effects: Within seconds, about ______% of body cells increase ______ uptake, particularly in ______ and ______ cells, through vesicles that transport ______ to the cell membrane.

80, glucose, muscle, adipose, glucose transport proteins

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Insulin binding results in several important metabolic effects: Insulin enhances cell membrane permeability to ______, ______, and ______.

amino acids, potassium ions, phosphate ions

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Insulin binding results in several important metabolic effects: Changes in intracellular enzyme activity occur within ______ to ______ minutes due to altered ______.

10, 15, phosphorylation

INSULIN CHEMISTRY AND SYNTHESIS Insulin binding results in several important metabolic effects: Over hours to days, insulin affects protein synthesis by altering ______ and ______, reshaping cellular ______.

mRNA translation, DNA transcription, enzymatic machinery

EFFECT OF INSULIN ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM