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Human Systems > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Name some of the key endocrine glands of the body?

A

Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, hypothalamus, adrenal glands, pancreas

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2
Q

At what speed do hormones effect the body?

A

Slow - chronic effect

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3
Q

What are the two classifications of hormones?

A

Steroids and non-steroids

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4
Q

What are the 3 types of non-steroid hormones?

A

Amino acid derivatives
Peptides
Glycoproteins

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5
Q

Steroid hormones are based on the ring structure of which basic organic chemical molecule?

A

Cholesterol

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6
Q

Name 5 examples of steroid hormones?

A

Cortisol
Aldosterone
Testosterone
Oestrogen
Progesterone

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7
Q

What are the two types of amino acid derivative (Non-steroid) hormones?

A

Amines and Iodinated amino acids

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8
Q

What are some common amine type amino acid derivatives of non-steroid hormones?

A

Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Melatonin

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9
Q

What are some common iodinated amino acids type amino acid derivatives of non-steroid hormones?

A

Triiodothyronine
Tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine)

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10
Q

What are the two types of non-steroid, peptide hormones?

A

Long chain (proteins) and short chain peptides

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11
Q

What are some examples of short chain non-steroid peptides?

A

Antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin
Melanocyte stimulating hormone
Somatostatin
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Atrial natriuretic hormone

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12
Q

What are some examples of long chain (proteins) non-steroid peptides?

A

Growth hormone
Prolactin
Parathyroid hormone
Calcitonin
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Insulin
Glucagon
GI tract hormones (secretin, CCK, gastrin)

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13
Q

Many peptide hormones are produced in a precursor form, i.e pre-hormone —> prohormone, where does this take place?

A

In the endoplasmic reticulum

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14
Q

What are prohormones?

A

An inactive precursor of a hormone

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15
Q

When does a prohormone become activated?

A

When it is packaged in Golgi apparatus (modified) . It is secreted from the cell via vesicles

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16
Q

Follicle Stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone (both involved in female menstruation cycle) are what type of non-steroid hormones?

A

Glycoprotein

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17
Q

What are some hormone-like substances which have a paracrine effect?

A

Prostagrandins
Leucotrienes
Thromboxane

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18
Q

What are the functions of local tissue hormones?

A

Blood flow regulation
Haemostasis
Mucosal protection (stomach)
Inflammation

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19
Q

What type of endocrine effect do local tissue hormones typically exert?

A

Paracrine

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20
Q

What are two common second messengers in the effect of non-steroid hormones?

A

cAMP and Ca++

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21
Q

Where are hormones mainly metabolised?

A

In the liver

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22
Q

Which type of hormones can travel through the cell membrane?

A

Steroid hormones because they are hydrophobic

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23
Q

What term describes over-secretion and under-secretion of hormones?

A

Hypersecretion and hyposecretion

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24
Q

What might further complicate hyposecretion and hypersecretion?

A

The number of receptors present.

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25
Q

What is downregulation?

A

Loss of receptors overtime

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26
Q

Having more hormone receptors is known as?

A

Upregulation

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27
Q

Having more hormone receptors is known as?

A

Downregulation

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28
Q

What mechanism typically regulates hormone secretion?

A

Negative feedback mechanisms

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29
Q

What is Hyperfunction?

A

Hypersecretion + Upregulation
Failure to metabolise hormone

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30
Q

What is Hypofunction?

A

Hyposecretion + Downregulation
Receptors non functioning

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31
Q

What are the function of Hypothalamus?

A

1- Thermoregulation
Negative feedback loop
2- Hormone secretion
Primary and trophic hormones
3- Circadian rhythms
Day/Night cycle
4- Motivation
Thirst , feeding, sexual behaviour
5- Emotions

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32
Q

What are the two pituitary glands?

A

Anterior & Posterior

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33
Q

What are the two types of hormones released from the hypothalamus?

A

Primary and Trophic hormones

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34
Q

Thirst, feeding and sexual behaviour are all do to motivation caused by which endocrine gland?

A

Hypothalamus

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35
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus in relation to the circadian rhythm?

A

By responding to day/night cycles

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36
Q

Where do releasing hormones from hypothalamus go?

A

To AP via blood vessels {Hypothalamic-pituitary portal vessels} ,that will trigger release of hormones from AP.

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37
Q

Name the blood vessels that used to carry releasing hormones from the hypothalamus to AP?

A

Hypothalamic-pituitary portal vessels

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38
Q

How do hormones travel from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary compared to anterior pituitary?

A

Via nerve axons in Posterior and blood vessels in anterior

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39
Q

What are some hypothalmic hormones?

A

-Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
-Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GRH)
-Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
-Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
-Somatostatin (SS) (GH inhibiting hormone)
-Prolactin releasing hormone (PLRH)
-Dopamine (DA) (also PLIH)

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40
Q

Name some Anterior Pituitary hormones?

A

-Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
-Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
-Luteinising hormone (LH)
-Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
-Growth hormone (GH)
-Prolactin (PL)

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41
Q

What hormone stimulates cortisol release from adrenal cortex?

A

ACTH\ adrenocorticotropic hormone

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42
Q

Detail the corticotrophins pathway leading to cortisol secretion?

A

The hypothalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). ACTH travels via the bloodstream and stimulate the secretion of cortisol from the adrenal glands.

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43
Q

Detail the Gonadotrophins hormone pathway?

A

Nerve cells (neurons) in your brain’s hypothalamus gland make and release GnRH into your blood vessels. The hormone then travels to your pituitary gland at the base of your brain. GnRH stimulates your pituitary gland to make and release follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone.

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44
Q

What effect does FSH have on the ovaries and testes?

A

Ovaries - Ovum maturation/ Oestrogen production
Testes - Sperm production

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45
Q

What effect does LH have on the ovaries and testes?

A

Ovaries - Production of oestrogen & Progesterone
Testes - Testosterone production

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46
Q

Detail the thyrotrophin hormone pathway?

A
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47
Q

Detail the Somatotrophins hormone pathway

A
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48
Q

Detail the Prolactin hormone pathway?

A
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49
Q

Name the hormones released by the Posterior pituitary gland

A

ADH
Oxytocin
(Produced in Hypothalamus)

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50
Q

Name the two nuclei that produce Oxytoxin and ADH

A

The paraventricular nuclei produce the hormone oxytocin, whereas the supraoptic nuclei produce ADH.

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51
Q

What is the action/function of ADH

A

Produced in Hypothalamus, Released by Posterior pituitary
Function: Increases Water reabsorption in DCT and collecting ducts via promoting aquaporin insertion

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52
Q

Name the Stimuli for Oxytocin release?

A

Stretch of Uterus
Infant suckling

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53
Q

Name the function of Oxytocin once released from the Posterior Pituitary?

A

Contraction o Uterus & Milk Ejection

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54
Q

Where is Calcitonin produced?

A

par-follicular (C-cells) in Thyroid gland

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55
Q

What are some thyroid hormones?

A

T3: tri-iodo-thyronine
T4: tetra-iodo-thyronine (‘thyroxine’)
Calcitonin (regulates calcium levels)

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56
Q

What are the functions of Thyroid Hormones?

A
  • Determine basal metabolic rate
  • Increase metabolic rate of cells
  • Normal foetal and childhood growth
  • Involved in upregulating adrenoreceptors
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57
Q

What is the clinical significance of hypothyroidism (adult life mainly)?

A

Cretinism, Myxoedema

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58
Q

What is the clinical significance of hyperthyroidism (child life mainly)

A

Graves disease- Exophathalmos

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59
Q

What name is given to the bump associated with thyroid swelling due to iodine deficiency?

A

Simple Goitre

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60
Q

What hormone dose parathyroid gland produce?

A

PTH → Increases serum calcium via activating osteoclast activity

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61
Q

What 3 hormones does the Pancreas produce?

A

Insulin
Glucagon
Somatostatin

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62
Q

Where are Islets of Langerhans lying?

A

In the exocrine tissue

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63
Q

What are some functions of Insulin?

A

Key function: Lowers blood glucose
Facilitates Glucose uptake into muscle cells & Adipocytes
Also involved in Formation of :
- Glycogen
- Triglycerides
- Facilitates protein synthesis

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64
Q

How does Insulin lower blood glucose?

A

Facilitates glucose entry into:
- Muscle cells, adipocytes
Promotes formation of:
- Glycogen
- Triglycerides
- Facilitates protein synthesis

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65
Q

What are some activities which promote insulin secretion?

A
  • Increased Blood glucose
  • Increased blood amino acids
  • Glucose dependant, insulinotropic peptide
  • Vagus Nerve activity
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66
Q

What are some activities which inhibit insulin secretion?

A
  • Adrenaline
  • Sympathetic Nerve
  • Somatostatin
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67
Q

Mention the functions of glucagon

A

Acts to raise blood glucose via:
- Glycogenolysis in liver
- Gluconeogenesis in liver
- Lipolysis and Ketone synthesis

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68
Q

How does Glucagon raise blood glucose?

A

Promotes:
- Glycogenolysis in liver - breakdown of glycogen
- Gluconeogenesis in liver - formation of glucose
- Lipolysis and ketone synthesis

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69
Q

What are some activities which promote glucagon secretion?

A

Decreased blood glucose
Increased blood amino acids
Cholecystokinin
Autonomic nerve activity

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70
Q

What are some activities which inhibit glucagon secretion?

A

insulin
somatostatin

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71
Q

What are some clinical features of Diabetes mellitus?

A

Polyuria (increase urine production)
Polydipsia (increase fluid intake; thirst)
Glycosuria (glucose in urine)
Diabetic neuropathy
Skin and oral diseases, incl. periodontitis, xerostomia

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72
Q

Which type of diabetes results in destruction of beta cells in the Pancreas?

A

Type 1 Diabetes

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73
Q

How is Type 1 Diabetes managed?

A

Diet control & Insulin Injections

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74
Q

What is Type 2 diabetes characterised by?

A

Insulin independent - Decreased sensitivity of target cells to insulin

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75
Q

How is Type 2 Diabetes managed?

A

Diet, oral hypoglycaemic agents

76
Q

What term is used to describe the adrenal gland position on the kidneys?

A

Supra-renal

77
Q

What are some cortex hormones released form cortex of adrenal glands

A
  • aldosterone
  • cortisol
  • androgens
78
Q

What cells of the adrenal cortex produce cortisol?

A

Zone fasciculata cells

79
Q

Cortisol controlled by what hormone?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from AP

80
Q

What are the actions of cortisol?

A

Metabolic effects, permissive effects (Adrenaline), Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive role

81
Q

What cells of the adrenal cortex produced aldosterone?

A

Zona glomerulosa

82
Q

What system controls aldosterone release?

A

RAAS

83
Q

What are the actions of Aldosterone?

A

-Promotes reabsorption of Na and H20 in the kidney DCT
- Increase exertion of H,K

84
Q

What cells of the adrenal cortex produced androgens?

A

Zona fasciculata & Reticularis

85
Q

What are the functions of Androgens?

A

Growth + Sexual characteristics - Pubertal growth

86
Q

Excess glucocorticoid - Cortisol secretion can cause what condition?

A

Cushing’s syndrome

87
Q

Excess androgen secretion can cause what condition?

A

Adreno-genital syndrome

88
Q

What are the two parts of adrenal gland?

A

Cortex and Medulla

89
Q

What hormones are released from medulla of adrenal glands?

A

adrenaline and noradrenaline

90
Q

Which types of nerves control the adrenal medulla?

A

Sympathetic

91
Q

Adrenal insufficiency cause?

A

Addison’s disease - low levels of Cortisol and aldosterone

92
Q

How our body gains water?

A
  • Ingestion - Food/drink
  • Formed via metabolism
93
Q

How our body losses water?

A
  • Excretion - Urine/Faeces
  • Evaporation - Sweat, Air
94
Q

What is GFR?

A

Glomerular filtration rate (120 ml/min)

95
Q

What is NFP?

A

Net filtration pressure (10-15mmHg)

96
Q

Where most of the obligatory reabsorption occurs?

A

Proximal convoluted tubule 60 – 70%

97
Q

What part of the nephron responsible for concentration of urine?

A

Loop of Henle

98
Q

What Hormones control the activities that occurs in the distal convoluted tubule?

A

Aldosterone
Atrial natriuretic hormone
ADH (in most distal parts)
Parathyroid hormone

99
Q

What are the activities that occur in the distal convoluted tubule?

A

Reabsorption of water, Na+, Cl–, Ca2+
Secretion of H+, K+

100
Q

What are the other names of Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH)?

A

ANF, ANP

101
Q

Where does ADH produced and released?

A

Antidiuretic hormone is produced in hypothalamus and released from posterior pituitary gland

102
Q

What is vasopressin?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Acts on distal convoluted tubules (distal end) and collecting ducts to increase water permeability
By insertion of aquaporin channels, water moves passively along osmotic gradient between tubule lumen and interstitial fluid.

103
Q

What are the two different ways to release ADH?

A
104
Q

Na+ regulations

A
105
Q

Na+ regulations

A
106
Q

K+ regulation

A

K+ is an important electrolyte in membrane potential establishment
- Small changes can have big effects on nerve/muscle function
- Regulated by Aldosterone (Same as Na+)

107
Q

Effects of K+ on nerve function

A
  • Increased K+ ECF → Increased depolarisation
  • Membrane potentials do not/struggle to return to ‘rest’
  • Axon remain in prolonged ‘refractory period’
108
Q

How K+ used in toothpastes to reduced sensitivity?

A
109
Q

Disorders of ADH secretion

A
  • Hypo-secretion
    • Diabetes insipidus
  • Hyper-secretion
    • Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
    • Excess water retention
110
Q

What is shock?

A

The decreased in blood volume that result in a fall in blood pressure and impaired delivery of nutrients.

111
Q

What are the physiological responses to blood loss?

A
  • Immediate - Stop the bleeding
  • Short term - Restore blood pressure
  • Medium term - Restore fluid volume
  • Long term - Replace blood constituent
112
Q

Explain vascular response in immediate response

A
  • Spasm due to trauma - Myogenic dilation & Humoral vasoconstriction
  • Endothelium - Platelet adhesion/aggregation
  • Endothelium - Facilitate anticlotting & fibrinolysis (Haemostasis)
113
Q

Explain platelet response in immediate response

A

Turbulent flow via vessel damage causes platelet contact with vessel wall

  • Platelets adhere & clump together
  • Chemical release enhances aggregation
  • Forms platelet plug
114
Q

Where most of the clotting factors are made?

A

Liver

115
Q

What vitamin requires to presence in synthesis of clotting factors?

A

Vitamin K

116
Q

What happen in plasma response?

A
  • Coagulation cascade
    Cascade responsible for the conversion of fibrinogen → Fibrin - Forms a stable blood clot
117
Q

Which pathway is important in initiating clotting after an injury?

A

Extrinsic pathway

118
Q

What is Fibrinolysis?

A

Dissolves fibrin clot once it has served purpose,this is undertaken by an enzyme plasmin

119
Q

Which baroreceptors detect the reduction of blood pressure?

A

Arterial baroreceptors

120
Q

Explain baroreceptor reflexes that happens in short term response

A

Mediated by - Sympathetic nerves
Hormones involved:
- Adrenaline
- Angiotensin II
- Vasopressin (ADH)

121
Q

How Blood Volume is restored via Increasing interstitial fluid reabsorption?

A

Arteriole vasoconstriction → Decreased capillary BP
Decreases hydrostatic pressure force
More fluid reabsorbed/retained due to oncotic pressure

122
Q

How Blood Volume is restored via decreasing fluid loss in kidney?

A
  • Reduced GFR decreases solute concentration in DCT
  • Na+ change detected by Juxta-medullary apparatus
  • RAAS activated → ADH, Aldosterone, Vasoconstriction, Thirst
123
Q

How Blood Volume is restored via Increasing fluid intake?

A

Hypothalamic mediated desire to drink
Stimuli:
- ⬆️ Plasma Osmolarity
- ⬇️ ECF volume
- Angiotensin II
- Dry mouth

124
Q

What is Erythropoiesis?

A

Process of making red blood cells (erythrocytes)

125
Q

Explain erythropoietin secretion

A
126
Q

Shock types

A
  • Hypovolaemic shock
    ⬇️ ECF volume - due to haemorrhage, sweating, diarrhoea, burns
  • Low resistance (or disruptive) shock
    ⬇️ Peripheral resistance - due to widespread vasodilation e.g. anaphylactic shock
  • Cardiogenic shock
    Heart failure to acts as a pump
127
Q

What is shock?

A

Acute loss in blood pressure, inadequate blood flow to tissues

128
Q

What is stress?

A

A force applied to a body causing deformation or strain

129
Q

Examples of some Stressors

A
130
Q

What are the systems that involve in complex interaction of stress?

A
  • Nervous ⚡
  • Endocrine 🧪
  • Immune 🦠
131
Q

Mention Stages in Stress?

A

Stages in Stress - General Adaption Syndrome

1- Alarm Reaction ⏰
- Fight, Flight, Fright responses
- Physiological effects
2- Resistance phase
- Adapting to Stressor
3- Exhaustion phase 😮‍💨
- Sever, persistent Stress
- If response is futile (weak) → system fails
- Various pathological effects

132
Q

What are the components of alarm response stage?

A
  • Neural - Sympathetic nervous system
  • Hormonal - Adrenaline & Corticosteroids
133
Q

Sympathetic fibers run from where to where?

A

T1-L2 of spinal cord

134
Q

What are the effects of sympathetic innervation?

A
  • ⬆️ CO (HR & Contractility)
  • 🩸 Redistribution of CO
    - Increased flow to muscle,
    -Decreased flow to GIT, Kidney e.c.t
  • ⚛️ Metabolic
    - Glycogenolysis (Glycogen → Glucose)
    - Adipose metabolism
  • 🧪 Stimulation of adrenaline release
135
Q

What are the effect of Adrenaline in 1st stage of stress?

A

Secreted from - Adrenal Medulla
Function: Augments & Prolongs action of SN

Increased SN function upregulates:
- Increase CO
- Redistribution of blood flow
- Metabolic effects

136
Q

Glucocorticoids - Cortisol

A

Secreted from - Adrenal Cortex

Functions:
- ⬆️ energy production from glucose, amino acids & Fats
- ⬆️ permissiveness of adrenaline (Enhances effects)
- Anti-inflammatory actions
- Immunosuppression

137
Q

What are anti-inflammatory actions of Cortisol?

A
  • Inhibit prostaglandins & Leukotrienes
  • Inhibit helper T cells
  • ⬆️incidence of illness during stress
138
Q

What is corticosteroids therapy?

A

-Act as anti-inflammatory drugs (E.g. Arthritis)
-Long term therapy can disrupt homeostatic control - CRH & ACTH
-Increases risk during dental procedures

139
Q

What is the main stress hormone?

A

Cortisol

140
Q

What is Stress Analgesia?

A

Diminishment of pain sensation induced by stress

141
Q

What causes analgesia during stress?

A
  • Release of endogenous opioid peptides
  • Release of endorphins
  • Release of enkephalins - opiates
142
Q

What might make the patient stress?

A

sounds - smells - equipment - treatment severity- LA- pain

Dental phobic patients - May present with higher levels of anxiety

143
Q

What might make dentist stress?

A

Standing
Complex/difficult procedures
Anxious patients
Supervising a student’s first extraction

144
Q

What happens in resistance phase?

A

Adaption Phase - Coping with Stress
Persistent exposure to stressor(s) → Causes response to diminish (adaptation)
Individual has gained resistance

145
Q

In the exhausting phase, what happens if there is a failure to overcome/adapt to stressors?

A

That is will lead to:
- Adrenal failure
- Immunosuppression
- Peptic Ulcers
- CVS disease
- Death - In extreme cases 💀

146
Q

What are the functions of Calcium?

A

Form bone and tooth structure
Mineral store
Action potentials (cardiac muscle) Membrane excitability
Acts as a 2nd messenger
- Muscle: excitation-contraction coupling
- Gland secretion
- Non-steroid hormone action
Co-factor in metabolic pathways
Blood clotting

147
Q

What are the hormones and minerals involved in Calcium homeostasis?

A

PTH
Calcitonin
Vitamin D

148
Q

How PTH acts to increase plasma calcium?

A
  • Osteoclast stimulation - Increased bone resorption
  • ⬆️ Ca2+ resorption in kidney (Paired with increased PO4 excretion)
  • ⬆️ Uptake of Ca2+ from intestine (assisted by vitamin D)
149
Q

How calcitonin act to lower plasma calcium?

A
  • Osteoblast stimulation - Increased formation of bone
  • ⬇️ Ca2+ resorption in kidney
150
Q

What are the sources of Vitamin D?

A

Dietary & 7-dehydrocholesterol synthesis

151
Q

What hormones increased bone formation?

A

Calcitonin
Growth hormone
IGF-1
Insulin
Oestrogen
Testosterone

152
Q

What hormone increase bone resorption?

A

Cortisol
PTH
Thyroid hormones

153
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Synthesise and secrete collagen fibres forming a matrix later mineralised by calcium salts

154
Q

Osteocytes

A

Trapped osteoblasts in the bone matrix

155
Q

What is the process that osteocyte use when contact with other cells?

A

Long cytoplasmic processes

156
Q

From which cells do osteoclast derived from?

A

Macrophages

157
Q

What is the name of the cavity that osteoclast lie in?

A

Howship’s Lacunae

158
Q

What are the reasons of Hypocalcaemia?

A

Hypo → Low calcium in blood
- Due to: Decreased Ca intake, Excessive Ca loss, Alkalosis
- Results in: ⬆️ Nerve excitability (Pins & Needles, spasms)

159
Q

How Alkalosis an arise?

A

From Hyperventilation due to rapid expiration of CO2 (Altering pH balance of blood).

Trapping CO2 → via rebreathing expired air from a bag can help settle symptoms

160
Q

What is Hyperparathyroidism?

A

Over secretion/activity of PTH → Hypercalcaemia
Causes: Osteitis fibrosa cystica → Demineralisation in skull and leg bones

161
Q

What is Hypoparathyroidism?

A

Low activity of PTH → Hypocalcaemia
Causes: Defective mineralisation (Can affect teeth development/integrity)

162
Q

What are the causes of Vitamin D deficiency?

A
  • Stemming from dietary deficiency
  • Synthesis failure
  • ⬇️ GIT uptake
163
Q

What Vitamin D deficiency can lead to?

A
  • Undermineralised bone (Soft and flexible)
  • Children → Rickets
  • Adults → Osteomalacia
164
Q

What is Osteoporosis?

A

bone disease
Decreased bone mass/density
Loss of Matrix → Secondary loss of mineral
Common in elderly (evident earlier in women)
Other causes: Corticosteroids, Nutritional deficiency

165
Q

What is Osteopetrosis?

A

Increased bone mass/density
Causes restricted/reduced blood supply
Prone to fracture and chronic infection
Dental related → difficult extractions

166
Q

What we call an increase in cell numbers?

A

Hyperplasia

167
Q

What we call an increase in cell size?

A

Hypertrophy

168
Q

Give examples of cells that can regenerate and others cannot

A

Can regenerate: Liver, skin, blood cells
Cannot: neurons

169
Q

Growth is affected by?

A

-Genes, heredity
-Environment: Nutrition-Disease-Growth factors, e.g. hormones

170
Q

What Hormones that influencing growth?

A

Thyroid hormones
Growth hormone
Sex hormones
Others :Insulin, Cortisol, Vitamin D, PTH

171
Q

How thyroid hormone can affect growth?

A

Indirectly affect growth - important for normal growth & development
Facilitates action of growth hormone and sympathetic NS

E.g. Protein synthesis in brain of foetus & infant
E.g. Development of neuron

172
Q

What is Hypothyroidism ?

A

When Thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones.

Clinical features/symptoms: Sparse hair, Large tongue, mental impairment

Deficiency impedes brain 🧠 and skeletal 🦴 growth - Delayed tooth eruption 🦷

173
Q

What is the treatment of hypothyroidism?

A

Treatment: Thyroxine supplements → may see improvement in mental function. Recovery may not be complete

174
Q

What is the function of the GH?

A

Possesses metabolic and growth-promoting actions
Main effects during: postnatal period, infancy & adolescence

175
Q

How Metabolic actions of growth hormone mostly indirect?

A

⬆️ Blood glucose levels - acts as ‘anti-insulin’
⬇️ Decreased glucose uptake by cells
⬆️ Lipolysis - fatty acids readily available for energy production
⬆️ Facilitates amino acid uptake - for protein synthesis

176
Q

How IGF-1 (Insulin-like growth factor) affect growth?

A

Produced in liver
- Exerts growth effects alongside GH
- Responsible for cartilage, bone, soft tissue and viscera development

177
Q

What are the effects of sex hormone in growth?

A

Effects:
- Bone growth stimulation
- Accelerate epiphyseal growth plate closure - end of bones
- Testosterone - anabolic effect on protein synthesis - ⬆️ Muscle bulk (Form of anabolic steroid)

178
Q

Insulin & Growth

A

No direct effects on growth

Contributions of insulin:
- Promotes foetal growth
- Promotes post-natal growth via IGF-1 secretion stimulation
- Facilitates protein synthesis by making glucose readily available

179
Q

Cortisol & Growth

A

Elevated levels → Inhibit growth

Actions of cortisol:
- Stimulates protein catabolism (Breakdown)
- Supresses bone growth and bone resorption

Elevated levels contribute to growth-retarding effects

180
Q

Vitamin D,PTH & growth

A

Contribute to growth via ensuring calcium and phosphate availability for bone formation (Bone homeostasis)

  • Vitamin D → Ca2+ absorption in gut
  • PTH raises plasma Ca2+ levels
181
Q

What we call the accelerates normal growth in childhood?

A

Gigantism

182
Q

What we call appositional growth occurs in extremities → Hands, feet, jaw ⬆️ in bulk?

A

Acromegaly

183
Q

What is Achondroplasia?

A

Defective cartilage growth
Characterised by: Short arms & Thighs
Attributed to: Genetic mutation of Growth hormone receptor gene

184
Q

What is ageing?

A

Involves the gradual deterioration of all parts of the body → Reduced body system performance

Can be complicated by disease

185
Q

Life span depends on what ?

A
  • Genetics
  • Environment
    • Nutrition
    • Lifestyle
    • Disease absence
186
Q

Why apoptosis occurs?

A

-In development; e.g. tooth germ, nervous system
-To replace ‘worn out’ cells
-To destroy tumour cells

Human Systems (5 decks)

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