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Endocrine system Flashcards

1
Q

Summarise the endocrine system…

A

The endocrine system coordinates the activity of organs through hormones - chemical messengers released into the blood from glands which produce them.

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2
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers released into the blood from glands which produce them, which act on cells with the correct hormone receptors.

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3
Q

Hormones can be … name the three molecules.

A
  1. Peptides - water soluble proteins ie insulin
  2. Steroids - (cholesterol) sex hormones, cortisol
  3. Amino acid derivatives - adrenaline, thyroxine
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4
Q

Two systems ensure our survival by controlling homeostasis in two different ways. Name the two systems…

A
  1. Autonomic nervous system

2. Endocrine system

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5
Q

List the main differences between the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system…

A

Autonomic nervous system creates RAPID change in the body, which is less precise with a shorter duration using neurotransmitters and controlled by the brains central nervous system.

Endocrine system creates a slower change but much more precise with the affects lasting longer. Functioning through hormones controlled by the hypothalamus.

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6
Q

Compare the two types of glands found in the body…

A
  1. Exocrine glands excrete products into ducts leading to body cavities, organs or skin. eg salivary glands, gastric glands, mammary glands
  2. Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. eg pituitary, adrenals, thyroid
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7
Q

The endocrine includes 10 glands, name at least 7.

A
  1. Hypothalamus
  2. Pituitary
  3. Pineal
  4. Thyroid
  5. Parathyroid
  6. Adrenal
  7. Pancreatic : islets of langerhans (also exocrine)
  8. Thymus
  9. Ovaries
  10. Testes
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8
Q

Some tissues of the body are not considered glands but have endocrine function, as in, they produce hormones. Name them and the hormones they produce. (7)

A
  1. Adipose tissue - leptin ( suppresses food intake) Resistin (balances levels of blood glucose)
  2. Heart - atrial natriuretic peptide, helps control blood pressure
  3. GIT - Stomach - ghrelin and gastrin are the two main ones (satiety and gastric emptying)
  4. Liver - angiotensinogen (involved in blood pressure), Insulin-like growth factor IGF, thrombopoieten (hormone to make more platelets)
  5. Placenta - human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and progesterone (maintains pregnancy)
  6. Kidneys - erythropoietin (RBC production) and calcitriol (activating vit D)
  7. Skin - cholecalciferol - precursor for vit D
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9
Q

Hormones have specific target cells and influence the activity of the target cells by binding to specific receptors. Whats the difference between protein-based hormones and lipid hormones in regards to the cells receptors?

A

The receptors for Protein-based hormones are part of the cell membrane, whilst Lipid hormone receptors are within the cell.

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10
Q

Fill in the missing words…

Receptors allow hormones to have a 1._______ or 2._______ effect on different cell types.

A
  1. Stimulating

2. Inhibiting

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11
Q

The target cells can alter their sensitivity to the hormone; down regulation and up regulation - explain what this means….

A

Down regulation - if a hormone is present in excess, the target number of cell receptors may decrease
Up regulation - a deficiency in a hormone causes an increase in the number of receptors on the target cells.

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12
Q

Hormone secretions are regulated by 3 processes…name them

A
  1. Nervous system signals
  2. Chemical changes in the blood
  3. Other hormones

All interact to allow maximum flexibility in response to the environment.
They are controlled through positive and negative feedback loops.

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13
Q

Name the two lobes of the pituitary gland…

A
  1. Anterior pituitary gland

2. Posterior pituitary gland

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14
Q

The pituitary gland is often named the ‘master endocrine gland’ as it controls many other endocrine glands in the body.
It is self regulated and signalled by the ______

A

Hypothalamus

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15
Q

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland represent the major link between which two systems…

A

nervous system and endocrine system

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16
Q

The hypothalamus creates the signal for the pituitary gland to send. Name 5 releasing hormones…

A
  1. TRH - Thyroid releasing hormone
  2. GHRH - Growth hormone releasing hormone
  3. CRH - Corticotropin releasing hormone
  4. PRH - Prolactin releasing hormone
  5. GnRH - Gonadotropin releasing hormone
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17
Q

The hypothalamus creates the signal for the pituitary gland to send. Name 2 inhibiting hormones…

A
  1. GHIH - Growth hormone inhibiting hormone

2. PIH - Prolactin inhibiting hormone - also known as Dopamine

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18
Q

What is Dopamine?

A

Dopamine is a type of neurotransmitter. Your body makes it, and your nervous system uses it to send messages between nerve cells. That’s why it’s sometimes called a chemical messenger. Dopamine plays a role in how we feel pleasure. It’s a big part of our unique human ability to think and plan.

Aside from its “feel good” function, dopamine is involved in many body functions. These include:

blood flow
digestion
executive functioning
heart and kidney function
memory and focus
mood and emotions
motor control
pain processing
pancreatic function and insulin regulation
pleasure and reward seeking behavior
sleep
stress response
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19
Q

the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland sends 2 hormones which are first synthesises in the hypothalamus, name the two hormones and their basic function…

A
  1. Oxytocin - bonding, uterus contraction and lactation.

2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - urine output

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20
Q

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland receives 7 hormones in capillaries from the hypothalamus, which are then synthesised and released. Name the 7

A
  1. Growth hormone (GH)
  2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  3. Follicle stimulation hormone (FSH)
  4. Luteinising hormone (LH)
  5. Prolactin (PRL)
  6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
  7. melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
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21
Q

Corticotropin released by the hypothalamus which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release which two hormones….

A
  1. Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)

2. Melanocyte (MSH)

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22
Q

Name the 4 main processes that Growth hormone activates…

A
  1. Regulates metabolism in many organs
  2. Stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factors (IGF’s) in cells
  3. Promotes growth and division of most body cells - especially bone and muscle
  4. Breaks down fats and glycogen
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23
Q

Growth hormone production is increased when… name 4 examples.

A
  1. During night time - growth hormone is increased during sleep
  2. Hypoglycameia - hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) produces an abrupt and sustained rise in levels of human growth hormone in plasma
  3. Exercise increases growth hormone - think muscle mass through weight lifting
  4. Childhood and adolescence - growth spurt
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24
Q

What is and where is the thyroid gland? Name the two hormones T3 and T4

A

The thyroid gland is a small butterfly-shaped gland in the neck, just in front of the windpipe (trachea). One of its main functions is to produce hormones that help regulate the body’s metabolism (the process that turns food into energy). These hormones are called triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

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25
Q

Thyroid info … just read

A

The thyroid makes two hormones that it secretes into the bloodstream. One is called thyroxine; this hormone contains four atoms of iodine and is often called T4. The other is called triiodothyronine, which contains three atoms of iodine and is often called T3

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26
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone ACTH activates our circadian rhythm (sleep/wake cycle) and also the output of steroid hormones, name 2…

A

Two steroid hormones

  1. Glucocorticoids
  2. Cortisol
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27
Q

What does cortisol do?

A

Cortisol, the primary stress hormone, increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream, enhances your brain’s use of glucose and increases the availability of substances that repair tissues. Cortisol also curbs functions that would be nonessential or harmful in a fight-or-flight situation

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28
Q

The production of adrenocorticotropic hormone is increased when … give 4 examples

A
  1. Hypoglycaemia - drop in blood sugar
  2. Exercise - triggers hormone output
  3. Stressors such as emotions / fever
  4. Interleukin-1 - inflammatory response to infection
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29
Q

When is adrenocorticotropic hormone at its highest and lowest…

A

Highest in the morning

Lowest in the evening

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30
Q

PRL - Prolactin hormone activity - name 3

A
  1. Stimulates lactation
  2. Prevents pregnancy during lactation by inhibiting GnRH
  3. Breast maturation after childbirth. Maturation of mammary glands in pregnancy
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31
Q

Prolactin + oxytocin = ?

A

Lactation

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32
Q

List 4 processes that can increase the production of prolactin…

A
  1. After birth - delivery of the placenta
  2. Suckling - more milk removed = more produced
  3. Emotional stress - chronic stress can increase production stopping the menstrual cycle
  4. Sleep - prolactine is increased by sleep - which is why not is important for new mothers to get proper sleep
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33
Q

FSH and LH are released by GnRH

Name the hormones …

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a releasing hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary.

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34
Q

FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone do what in the body….

A

Produce gametes (sex cells) in males and females. Increase production of oestrogen in females and stimulate testosterone in males.

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35
Q

LH - Luteinising hormone does what to the body…

A

Triggers ovulation and formation of ‘corpus luteum’ in females. Increases secretion of progesterone in females and stimulates secretion of testosterone in males

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36
Q

Melanocyte stimulating hormone MSH is produced by what in response to what?

A

Produced by the anterior pituitary gland in response to UV light.

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37
Q

Which hormone released by the hypothalamus stimulates MSH (and ACTH)

A

Corticotropin releasing hormone CRH

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38
Q

Name the 3 ‘activities’ of the hormone Oxytocin and where it is released.

A

Released from the posterior pituitary gland

  1. Contracts uterus during childbirth
  2. Contracts lactating breasts
  3. Bonding hormone - mother and baby, social bonding, skin contact ‘cuddle hormone’
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39
Q

What is the first breast fluid produced called and what 3 main things does it contain…

A

Colostrum

Contains: Water, lactose-sugar and anti-bodies.

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40
Q

Colostrum acts as a laxative to encourage bowel movement in new borns, why is this important?

A

To remove bilirubin and wastes that have accumulated in the foetal intestines.

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41
Q

ADH - Antidiuretic hormone controls ? (2)

A
  1. How much water we output in the urine. Antidiuretic hormone reduces the urine output by stimulating reabsorption of water in the kidneys.
  2. Causes vasoconstriction in the skin and abdominal organs to increase blood pressure - adding more water to the blood.
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42
Q

What is osmotic pressure?

A

Osmosis is defined as the flow of water/solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a region of low to high solute concentration, until equilibrium is established

The osmotic pressure is the pressure required to counter, not sustain, osmosis

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43
Q

Antidiuretic hormone production is increased when there is… name 2

A
  1. Increased osmotic pressure (this causes cells to lose water - dehydration)
  2. Hypovolaemia - low blood volume
    Hypovolemia, or volume depletion, is a critical decrease in blood volume in your body. It can happen due to blood loss or loss of body fluids, such as water. Diarrhea and vomiting are common causes of body fluid loss.
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44
Q

Where is the thyroid stimulating hormone released from?

A

The Anterior pituitary gland

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45
Q

What are pituitary gland pathologies typically associated with (2)

A
  1. Tumours

2. Autoimmune diseases

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46
Q

The disease processes can result in either hyper or hypo secretion of certain pituitary hormones.

Whats the difference between acromegaly and gigantism?

A

Gigantism is an excess growth hormone while the bones are developing - results in a person growing to massive heights.

Acromegaly is an excess of growth hormone post-puberty (after growth plates are closed). Patient grows outwards as opposed to upwards

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47
Q

The main cause of Acromegaly and gigantism is a pituitary tumour hyper-secreting growth hormones.
List 3 signs and symptoms …

A
  1. Large, prominent facial features, increased size of hands and feet.
  2. Tiredness
  3. Deep voice
  4. Joint pain
  5. Bone deformities
  6. Soft tissue swelling
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48
Q

name 3 complications of excess growth hormone

A
  1. Hypertension
  2. cardiomegaly
  3. Type 2 diabetes (GH raises blood glucose levels = insulin resistance)
  4. Osteoarthritis, vertebral collapse (back pain)
  5. Bowel polyps
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49
Q

What is hyperprolactinaemia?

A

excessive prolactin production - excessive prolactin in the blood

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50
Q

list 3 causes of hyperprolactinaemia

A
  1. Pituitary tumour
  2. acromegaly
  3. pharmacologic
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51
Q

Name 3 signs and symptoms of hyperprolactinaemia

A
  1. Galactorrhea - (spontaneous flow of milk from breasts - unassociated from childbirth)
  2. Amenorrhoea - (absence of menses - because prolactin inhibits GnRH)
  3. Decreased libido / sexual dysfunction
  4. Subfertility
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52
Q

What is diabetes insipidus

A

Deficiency of Antidiuretic Hormone ADH production or recognition causing the kidneys to over-excrete water

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53
Q

Name the two types of Diabetes Insipidus and their possible causes.

A
  1. Cranial - Brain trauma, tumour, encephalitis
  2. Renal (kidney) - Chronic kidney disease, hypercalcaemia (high calcium in blood) and hypokalaemia (deficiency of potassium) which damages the kidneys
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54
Q

what does Polydipsia mean?

A

excessive thirst

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55
Q

Name 4 symptoms of Diabetes insipidus

A
  1. Polydipsia - extreme thirst
  2. Polyuria - excess urine production (dilute)
  3. Weight loss
  4. Low blood pressure (fainting due to hypervolaemia)
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56
Q

What measures would you take to diagnose Diabetes Insipidus?

A

1.

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57
Q

What measures would you take to diagnose diabetes insipidus?

A
  1. 24 hour urine collection (quantity of urine measured over 24 hours)
  2. Urine - specific gravity - low (urine is more diluted than normal)
  3. Blood biochemistry (raised sodium Na)
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58
Q

What is the pineal gland and which hormone does it produce?

A

The pineal gland is a small pea-sized gland in the midline of the brain that produces melatonin (sleep hormone)

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59
Q

Describe how melatonin is stimulated from the Pineal Gland

A

Specialised photoreceptors in the retina detect light / darkness cues - retinal feedback
Stimulated by night / darkness
Reduced by daylight / irregular sleep patterns

60
Q

Melatonin hormone contributes to the setting of circadian rhythm. What is the circadian rhythm?

A

metabolic, physiological and behavioural alterations that follow a 24 hour rhythm

61
Q

Melatonin is a potent antioxidant and DNA protective. What is melatonin made from

A

Serotonin

which is also a hormone involved in mood

62
Q

What is the thymus gland?

A

A bi-lobed gland, located behind the sternum, which plays an important role in immune development

63
Q

hormones produced by the thalamus gland promote the maturation of T-Lymphocytes. What are T-lymphocytes?

A

T-Lymphocytes are white blood cells involved in specific immunity - they learn to fight individual infection/disease.

64
Q

What is the thyroid gland?

A

A butterfly shaped gland that is inferior to the larynx and located either side of the trachea.

65
Q

What does the thyroid gland influence?

A

Influences metabolic rate and is important growth hormone in early life.

66
Q

Which cells produce the thyroid hormones T4 and T3?

A

Follicular cells

67
Q

What does T4 and T3 stand for?

A 
T4 = Thyroxine (molecule has 4 iodine atoms)
T3 = Triiodothyronine (molecule has 3 iodine atoms)
68
Q

What to thyroid follicular cells trap and store?

A

Iodine

69
Q

What hormone do parafollicular cells secrete and what does it function?

A

secrete the hormone calcitonin and functions to lower blood calcium levels

70
Q

Thyroid gland:
The follicles are filled with a fluid known as colloid that contains thyroglobulin.
T4 and T3 are synthesised from tyrosine and iodine from a specialised thyroid protein called thyroglobulin (Tg)

A
71
Q

Name the major from of thyroid hormone in the blood

A

Thyroxine (T4)

Ratio of T4 to T3 is approx 20:1

72
Q

Which two enzymes are used in the conversion of T4 to T3?

A

Selenium and Zinc

73
Q

Which thyroid hormone is more biologically active?

A

T3

Three to four times more potent and T4

74
Q

How are thyroid hormone levels measured in terms of

A

in terms of FREE T4 and T3

Most body cells have receptors for the thyroid hormones - controls metabolism of every cell

75
Q

What do thyroid hormones do? (3)

A

1) Increase metabolic rate and heat production
2) essential for normal growth and development and central nervous system function
3) work in conjunction with adrenaline and noradrenaline, insulin and growth hormone.

76
Q

Name three thyroid hormone stimulants…

A
  1. Thyroid stimulating hormone
  2. Exercise
  3. Stress
  4. Malnutrition
  5. Low blood glucose
  6. Low T3 to T4
77
Q

Thyroid hormones are at their highest at night.

What might reduce thyroid hormones.

A

Low thyroid stimulating hormone

High T3

78
Q

There are 4 ways to lab test thyroid hormones - name them…

A
  1. TSH levels - measured in the morning as it is at its highest and most reliable.
  2. Free T3 and T4 - Unbound form of thyroid hormones are more bioavailable to target cells and tissues.
  3. Thyroglobulin (Tg) - levels in the blood can be used as a tumour marker for certain kinds of thyroid cancer
  4. Anti-thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb) - often found in patients with autoimmune thyroid disease (Hashimotos or Graves)
79
Q

What is hypothyroidism?

A

A condition of thyroid hormone deficiency (an underachieve thyroid)

80
Q

name 4 symptoms of hypothyroidism …

A
  1. Tiredness
  2. Malaise
  3. Weight gain
  4. Cold intolerance
  5. Constipation
  6. Depression
  7. Slow cognition
  8. Poor memory
  9. Muscle aches
  10. Menstrual changes
81
Q

Name 3 signs of hypothyroidism …

A
  1. Goitre (enlargement of thyroid gland)
  2. Dry, brittle skin
  3. Myxoedema (swelling) often around the eyes
  4. Thin hair, loss of eyebrows
82
Q

Name 2 physical exams that may help diagnose hypothyroidism …

A
  1. slow tendon reflexes

2. Bradycardia

83
Q

hypothyroidism may show up in blood tests with …

A 
High TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)
Low thyroid hormones T4 and T3
84
Q

Name three possible causes for hypothyroidism …

A
  1. Hashimotos thyroiditis (autoimmune)
  2. Iodine deficiency
  3. Thyroid destruction (radioactive iodine from treating an overactive thyroid, surgery, medications / tumour)
  4. Excess fluoride
85
Q

name the allopathic treatment for hypothyroidism

A

Levothyroxine - thyroid hormone replacement

86
Q

Name three natural vitamins / minerals that would support thyroid function

A
  1. Iodine
  2. Selenium
  3. Tyrosine
  4. Zinc
87
Q

What is hyperthyroidism?

A

Hyperthyroidism is characterised by hyper-metabolism, and elevated serum levels of free thyroid hormones (also known as thyrotoxicosis)

88
Q

name 3 possible causes of hyperthyroidism …

A
  1. Graves disease - (85% autoimmune) - increased IgG antibodies bind to TSH receptors and stimulate production of thyroid hormones when we don’t actually need them
  2. Excessive iodine supplementation
  3. Tumour (hypothalamic, pituitary)
89
Q

Name 6 symptoms of Hyperthyroidism…

A
  1. Nervousness, irritability, hyperactivity
  2. Unexplained weight loss
  3. Insomnia
  4. Palpitations
  5. Muscle weakness
  6. Frequent bowel and bladder movements
  7. Fatigue
90
Q

Name 3 signs of hyperthyroidism

A
  1. Goitre - swollen/enlarged thyroid
  2. Exophthalmos - bulging eyes
  3. Tachycardia
  4. Tremor
  5. Brisk tendon reflexes
91
Q

Name 2 Allopathic treatments for Hyperthyroidism

A
  1. Carbimazole
  2. Radioactive iodine
  3. Beta blockers
  4. Surgery
92
Q

What is the Barnes temperature test?

A

Temperature test under the arm upon waking.
Testing for 5 consecutive days and noting the 3 lowest readings.
36.6 - 36.8 is normal
Below 36.6 might indicate Hypothyroidism
Above 37 degrees might indicate Hyperthyroidism

93
Q

Which hormone is produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland?

A

Calcitonin

94
Q

What does the calcitonin hormone do?

A

Calcitonin lowers blood calcium by:

  1. Inhibiting calcium reabsorption from the bone and kidneys
  2. Inhibits osteoclast activity
95
Q

What stimulates and what inhibits Calcitonin production from the parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland?

A

Stimulated by increased blood calcium

Inhibited by reduced blood calcium levels

96
Q

Describe the parathyroid glands…

A

The parathyroid glands consist of 4 small glands partially embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid. They produce parathyroid hormones

97
Q

The parathyroid hormones (PTH) increases blood calcium in three ways - describe them

A
  1. By increasing osteoclast activity - break down bone to release calcium into the blood stream
  2. Increases kidney reabsorption of calcium and magnesium
  3. Increasing production of Calcitriol which increases calcium absorption in the GIT - Calcitriol is a form of vitamin D3. Vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium from the stomach
98
Q

What is calcium essential for…(3)

A

Muscle contraction
Nerve transmission
Blood clotting

99
Q

When is parathyroid hormone release stimulated?

A

Stimulated by reduced blood calcium levels

100
Q

How is hyperparathyroidism characterised?

A

by elevated blood levels of parathyroid hormone and improper calcium regulation - usually caused by a tumour of the parathyroid gland.

101
Q

There are often no/few symptoms for hyperthyroidism but as hyperthyroidism can cause hypercalcaemia there is an increased risk of… name 3

A
  1. kidney stones
  2. osteoporosis (or osteopenia)
  3. Low energy
  4. Depression
102
Q

Hypoparathyroidism is characterised by hypo-metabolism and reduced serum levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH) What can this be caused by?

A

Usually surgery or radiation (radiation from treating an overactive thyroid)

103
Q

Hypoparathyroidism signs and symptoms include Hypocalcaemia, which is when blood calcium levels drop. Give 4 signs and symptoms of hypocalcaemia…

A
  1. Muscle cramps and spasms
  2. Tingling lips, fingers and toes
  3. Dry hair
  4. Brittle nails
  5. Dry scaly skin
  6. Cataracts
104
Q

The adrenals are paired glands superior to the kidneys. They are divided into the … name the two parts

A
  1. Medulla (inner)

2. Cortex (outer)

105
Q

The medulla part of the adrenal gland produces what 3 hormones…

A
  1. Adrenaline
  2. Noradrenaline
  3. Dopamine
106
Q

The cortex part of the adrenal produces 3 groups of steroid hormones …name them

A
  1. Glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol)
  2. Mineralocorticoids (primarily aldosterone)
  3. Sex Hormones (primarily androgens)
107
Q

Adrenaline and Noradrenaline are produced by the adrenal medulla, both intensifying the sympathetic response. Which cells release them and what part of the body do these hormones have greater influence on?

A

Released by chromaffin cells
Adrenaline has greater influence on the heart - rate and force
Noradrenaline effects blood vessels - vasoconstriction

108
Q

How is adrenaline and noradrenaline stimulated?

Name 5

A
  1. Exercise
  2. Fasting
  3. Shock
  4. elevsted temperature
  5. infection
  6. disease
  7. emotional stress
  8. caffeine
109
Q

How is adrenaline and noradrenaline inhibited?

Name 3

A
  1. Sleeping
  2. Eating
  3. Calmness
  4. Diaphragmatic breathing
110
Q

Adrenaline binds to receptors on the…

Name the 5 areas and what the adrenaline stimulates

A
  1. Heart: increases heart rate and contraction causing an increase blood pressure
  2. Vessels: Vasodilation in heart, brain, skeletal muscles. Vasoconstriction in digestive tract
  3. Thyroid: increases metabolism
  4. Skeletal muscle and liver: increases blood glucose and triglycerides fro metabolism
  5. Nervous system: dilates pupils
111
Q

What are Glucocorticoids?

A

Steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex which regulate metabolism and resistance to stress. This is mainly cortisol.

112
Q

Adrenal cortex: List the main activity that the hormones Glucocorticoids stimulate…. 7

A
  1. Stimulating gluconeogenesis
  2. Proteolysis (amino acids from protein)
  3. Lipolysis (breakdown of fats for metabolism)
  4. Production of glucose by the liver
  5. Reduces immune response (and tissue repair)
  6. Anti-inflammatory
  7. Weak reabsorption of sodium and water from kidney tubules
113
Q

Adrenal cortex; Mineralocorticoids hormones. Name the primary hormone and what it maintains …

A

Primarily aldosterone - maintains water and electrolyte balance

114
Q

What does the adrenal cortex hormone mineralocorticoids do….4

A
  1. Reabsorption of sodium in kidneys
  2. Causes retention of water in the kidneys to increase blood volume and blood pressure
  3. Excretion of potassium in urine
  4. Promotes excretion of H+ ions (acid)
115
Q

How are mineralocorticoids stimulated? name 2

A
  1. Low blood pressure or low blood volume

2. High blood potassium - stimulates the ‘renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway.

116
Q

Adrenal cortex produces a small amount of sex hormone, primarily androgens in the from of DHEA -Dehydroepiandrosterone. Name the activities that these sex morons promote…

A
  1. Production of pubic and axillary hair
  2. Growth: increases muscle mass
  3. Converted to testosterone then oestrogen
  4. Involved in T4 to T3 conversion
117
Q

Cushing syndrome/disease are adrenal pathologies. What hormone is excessive in these pathologies

A

Glucocorticoids

118
Q

Cushing disease is slightly different to cushing syndrome because it is caused by a pituitary tumour. Name the 3 possible cause of Cushing syndrome…

A
  1. Corticosteroid therapy
  2. Adrenal adenoma
  3. Pituitary adenoma - cushing disease
119
Q

List 4 possible signs and symptoms of Cushing syndrome/disease…

A
  1. Central weight gain, moon face, buffalo hump, insulin resistance
  2. Easy bruising, thin skin, abdominal stretch marks
  3. Reduced immunity
  4. Muscular weakness, back pain
  5. Bone fractures, osteoporosis
  6. Hypertension
120
Q

name this pathology: Adrenal insufficiency: hypo-functioning of the adrenal cortex causing a deficiency of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

A

Addisons disease

121
Q

Name two possible causes of Addisons disease

A
  1. Atrophy of the adrenal gland (85% autoimmune)

2. Secondary to a disease or abrupt cessation of steroids

122
Q

name 4 signs or symptoms of Addisons disease

A
  1. Weakness, fatigue and hypotension
  2. Hyperpigmentation of skin and mucous membranes
  3. Diarrhoea, weight loss, anorexia, malaise, muscle weakness, depression, increased thirst
  4. Impotence / amenorrhoea, nausea / vomiting
    (amenorrhoea = loss of menstration)
123
Q

Fill in the missing words…

Adrenal failure leads to lack of adrenal 1_______ production and a failure of the normal 2________ _________ mechanism.

A
  1. Hormone

2. Negative feedback

124
Q

The Pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine function. The endocrine function is via cells called…?

A

islets of langerhans

125
Q

The pancreas contains different types of endocrine cells including …. name 3 and what they produce.

A
  1. Alpha cells - produce glucagon
  2. Beta cells - produce insulin
  3. Delta cells - Produce somatostatin (GHIH)
126
Q

The main endocrine function of the pancreas is to regulate blood glucose levels and maintain within the normal range. What is the normal blood glucose range?

A

4 - 7 mmol/L

127
Q

The Pancreas produces insulin via Beta cells. What does insulin do and how

A

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels, amino acids and fatty acids by stimulating cells to uptake glucose from the blood and promoting synthesis of proteins, glycogen and fats.

128
Q

How is insulin stimulated, list both the direct and indirect influences.

A
  • Directly stimulated by: high blood glucose, elevated blood amino acids, eating, sweet taste (including artificial sweeteners)
  • Indirectly: GH (growth hormone) and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) acting to elevate blood sugar levels
129
Q

The pancreas produces glucagon with Alpha cells, what does glucagon do?

A

Acts on the liver to elevate blood glucose levels

130
Q

Fill in the missing words in regards to glucagon.

Converts glycogen to 1.______ in the liver and skeletal muscle (glycogenolysis)
Gluconeogenesis from 2_____ _____and 3.______ _____
Lipolysis to break down stored 4._____ for metabolism.

A
  1. glucose
  2. lactic acid
  3. amino acids
  4. fat
131
Q

How is glucagon stimulated and reduced?

A

Stimulated by low blood sugar, exercise, stress (fight or flight)
Reduced by Insulin, hyperglycaemia

132
Q

What is diabetes mellitus?

A

A metabolic disorder associated with hyperglycaemia, characterised by a deficiency of insulin due to impaired production or insulin resistance

133
Q

Name the 4 types of Diabetes Mellitus …

A
  1. TYPE 1 - Autoimmune
  2. TYPE 2 - Insulin resistance
  3. Secondary (1-2% of cases) due to certain medications / pancreatitis
  4. Gestational - during pregnancy as a result of placental hormones - usually disappears after birth but increases the risk of type 2 diabetes later in life.
134
Q

Type 1 diabetes is an auto-immune condition causing destruction of the pancreatic beta cells. Beta cells produce insulin. Give 4 signs / symptoms try to use correct terminology ….

A
  1. Glycosuria - sugar in the urine
  2. Polyuria - frequent urinating
  3. Polydipsia - increased thirst
  4. Weight loss, weakness, fatigue and mental status changes
  5. Blurred vision, slow healing of cuts/infections
  6. In extreme cases; Ketoacidosis - fruity smelling breath (exhaled acetone) shortness of breath
135
Q

How might chromium help with Diabetes?

A

Chromium increases insulin binding cells - increase the number of insulin receptors

136
Q

How is type 2 diabetes different from type 1?

A

Type 2 is when cells have developed insulin resistance and glucose cannot enter the cells. Whereas type 1 is autoimmune

137
Q

What causes type 2 diabetes? name 2 causes

A
  1. Genetic - has a strong hereditary link - especially in American Indians, Hispanics, African Americans and Asians
  2. Lifestyle - obesity and weight gain, poor diet, lack of exercise. (Gestational diabetes)
138
Q

Type 2 may often be asymptomatic because of mild hyperglycaemia - unlike type 1 diabetes.
Give 3 ways to diagnose type 2 diabetes…

A
  1. Fasted or random blood glucose test (anything above the normal 4-7mmol/L may indicate diabetes
  2. Oral glucose tolerance test - where sugar spike remains elevated
  3. Glycated Haemoglobin (glucose (sugar) in your body sticks to your red blood cells) HbA1c
139
Q

Diabetes complications: Chronic hyperglycaemia causes complications. Micro and macro -vascular disease. Name 4 related diseases….

A
  1. Heart disease - hypercholesterolaemia, hypertension
  2. Retinopathy
  3. Nephropathy (diabetic kidney disease)
  4. Peripheral neuropathy
140
Q

Hypoglycaemia can affect diabetics in response to treatment, give 4 signs or symptoms of Hypoglycaemia….

A
  1. Shaking and trembling
  2. Sweating
  3. Pins and needles in the lips and tongue
  4. Extreme hunger and irritability
  5. Headache
  6. Slurred speech, confusion, tiredness
  7. ketoacidosis and coma
141
Q

What are local hormones?

A

Hormones produced by tissues that act on cells in the surrounding area

142
Q

Name the local hormone …

Secreted by basophils and mast cells. Cause inflammation - vasodilation and increased blood vessel permeability

A

Histamine

143
Q

Name the local hormones …

Secreted by most tissues. These are chemical messengers involved in many different body processes

A

Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Thromboxanes

144
Q

Name the local hormone …

Secreted by intestines and the the brain. Involved in blood clotting, temperature regulation, appetite and sleep.

A

Seratonin

145
Q

Name the local hormone …

Secreted mostly by the brain. Involved in muscle tone and movement

A

Dopamine

146
Q

Name the local hormone …

Secreted by kidneys, produces red blood cells

A

Erythropoietin

147
Q

Name the local hormone …

Secreted by the GI tract, stimulated bile and pancreatic juice secretion

A

CCK

Cholecystokinin

Biomedicine basics (9 decks)

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