Endocrine and metabolic disorders

Question 1

hypothalamus

Answer 1

● Regulates the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and helps maintain body homeostasis
➤ Manages temperature, sweat, sexual behavior, thirst, fear, blood pressure (BP),
sleep
➤ Controls the release of pituitary hormones through
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Somatostatin

Question 2

Anterior pituitary gland

Answer 2

Growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating

hormone (FSH), prolactin, luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid-stimulating hor-
mone (TSH)

Question 3

posterior pituitary gland

Answer 3

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin
● Pituitary gland is responsible for the secretion of TSH, which stimulates the thyroid
gland to release the thyroid hormones (thyroxine [T4] and triiodothyronine [T3])

Question 4

thyroid gland

Answer 4

● Follicular cells secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) → help regulate metab-
olism and protein synthesis

● C cells secrete calcitonin → affects calcium and phosphorus homeostasis
● Produces hormones that act to control the rate at which cells burn the fuel from food

Question 5

Parathyroid

Answer 5

● Release parathyroid hormone (PTH)

● PTH regulates the homeostasis of calcium and phosphate in the blood and the calci-
fication of bone

Question 6

Adrenal gland has the adrenal cortex that controls the release of….

Answer 6

➤ Corticosteroids
Example: aldosterone → regulates potassium and sodium levels, maintains
fluid and electrolyte balances
➤ Glucocorticoids

Example: cortisol → regulates carbohydrate metabolism, aids immune func-
tion, reduces inflammation, promotes gluconeogenesis

Question 7

Adrenal gland has the adrenal medulla that controls the release of….

Answer 7

➤ Epinephrine and norepinephrine → support fight-or-flight response, increase
blood glucose levels, stimulate ACTH production

Question 8

kidneys

Answer 8

Conversion to active form of vitamin D

Question 9

ovaries

Answer 9

Secrete estrogen and progesterone
➤ Estrogen: regulates female reproductive organs, controls female sexual
characteristics
Menstrual cycle and pregnancy
➤ Progesterone: stimulates breast tissue for lactation and prepares endometrium for
implantation of the fertilized ovum

Question 10

testes

Answer 10

● Androgens (testosterone): control male sexual characteristics

Question 11

thymus

Answer 11

● Produces thymosin
➤ Thymosin: aids production and development of T-cells for the immune system

Question 12

pineal gland

Answer 12

● Secretes hormone melatonin
➤ Melatonin: regulates sleep–wake cycles

Question 13

metabolic syndrome

Answer 13

■ Collection of risk factors that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus (DM)

Question 14

metabolic syndrome risk factors

Answer 14

● Diagnosis requires 3 or more of the following factors:
➤ Abdominal obesity: waist circumference ≥ 40 in (> 102 cm) for males or ≥ 35 in
(> 89 cm) for females
➤ High triglyceride: ≥ 150 mg/dL
➤ Cholesterol: high-density lipoprotein (HDL) < 40 mg/dL in males or < 50 mg/
dL in females
➤ High BP: systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥ 130 mmHg, diastolic blood pressure
(DBP) ≥ 85 mmHg
➤ Blood sugar: fasting plasma glucose ≥ 100 mg/dL

Question 15

metabolic syndrome etiology

Answer 15

● Collection of risk factors responsible

● Unhealthy lifestyle: sedentary lifestyle with little to no physical activity, abdomi-
nal obesity, and insulin resistance are dominant underlying risk factors for metabolic syndrome
● Certain diseases and hormonal imbalances

Question 16

metabolic syndrome treatment

Answer 16

management of risk factors
● Lifestyle modification: healthy diet, weight loss, exercise, smoking cessation can
reverse or reduce the risk for developing metabolic syndrome
● Medications: control cholesterol, BP, DM

Question 17

DM characteristics

Answer 17

■ Characteristics
● Chronic disorder of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism due to insufficient or
defective insulin action in the body
● Caused by abnormally high levels of sugar or glucose in blood
● May be acquired, autoimmune, environmental, genetic, or ethnicity-related (more
prevalent in Native American,

Question 18

Type 1 DM

Answer 18

insulin-dependent; juvenile-onset diabetes (5%–10% of cases)
➤ Little or no insulin produced
Due to a decrease in the size of islet cells
Requires insulin injections, pump, or inhalation
➤ Abrupt onset of symptoms
➤ Age of onset
Peaks at about the age of puberty
Usually occurs at < 30 years of age
➤ Etiology: possible viral and autoimmune factors resulting in destruction of islet
cells
➤ Risk factors: autoimmune, environmental, and genetic factors
➤ Individuals prone to ketoacidosis and ketonuria (ketone bodies in urine)
Ketones alter arterial pH to become more acidic (ie, decrease pH)
Kussmaul breathing: sign of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Question 19

Type 1 Cont

Answer 19

● Excessive secretion of PTH; disrupts calcium, phosphate, and bone metabolism
● Increases serum calcium and decreases serum phosphate
➤ Takes calcium from bones → demineralizes bones
➤ Increased serum calcium can cause kidney stones