Endocrine

Question 1

Answer 1

• Pheochromocytoma (PCCs)
• tumors that form in the adrenal glands, specifically in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla.
• More chromaffin cells means more adrenal hormones, especially norepinephrine. More norepinephrine means more sympathetic nervous system activity. And that means that the actions our body normally reserves for stressful situations can come up at any time.
• You’ll notice that both words contain the root ‘chrom,’ which means color. ‘Pheo’ is derived from the Greek word for dark, while ‘cyto’ means cell. Rounding out this word is, of course, the root ‘-oma,’ which indicates a tumor. Put them together, and you have a literal definition of what pheochromocytoma is: a darkly staining tumor made of chromaffin cells.

Question 2

Answer 2

• neuroendocrine tumours, specifically a carcinoid tumour which can cause carcinoid syndrome
• Carcinoid tumors, which are one subset of tumors called neuroendocrine tumors, usually begin in the digestive tract (stomach, appendix, small intestine, colon, rectum) or in the lungs
• Carcinoid syndrome is a paraneoplastic syndrome comprising the signs and symptoms that occur secondary to carcinoid tumors. The syndrome includes flushing and diarrhea, and less frequently, heart failure, vomiting and bronchoconstriction. It is caused by endogenous secretion of mainly serotonin and kallikrein.

Question 3

Answer 3

• Addison’s disease
  
  • also called adrenal insufficiency, is an uncommon disorder that occurs when your adrenal glands produces too little cortisol +/ aldosterone +/ adrenaline
• Secondary adrenal insufficency
  
  • adrenal hypofunction due to a lack of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Question 4

Answer 4

• Cushing syndrome
  
  • the clinical manifestation of pathological hypercortisolism from any cause.
  • can be caused by adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary tumours (termed Cushing’s disease)
• Conn’s syndrome
  
  • Primary aldosteronism (PA), also known as primary hyperaldosteronism
  • refers to the excess production of the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal glands, resulting in low renin levels

Question 5

definitions are too easy for this one so instead give a couple of consequences of the conditions instead

Answer 5

• hyper-kalaemia
  
  • While mild hyperkalemia is usually asymptomatic, high levels of potassium may cause life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness or paralysis
• hypo-kalaemia
  
  • can make muscles feel weak, cramp, twitch, or even become paralyzed, and abnormal heart rhythms may develop.
• hyper-calcaemia (of malignancy)
  
  • can cause kidney problems, such as kidney stones and kidney failure. Other complications include irregular heartbeats and osteoporosis, also sometimes confusion
• hypo-calcaemia
  
  • can lead to dental changes, cataracts, alterations in the brain, and osteoporosis

Question 6

Answer 6

• Diabetes I & II
  
  • carbohydrate metabolism condition characteristed by hyperglycaemia
• ketoacidosis
  
  • a metabolic state caused by uncontrolled production of ketone bodies that cause a metabolic acidosis
• hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state
  
  • a metabolic complication of diabetes mellitus characterized by severe hyperglycemia, extreme dehydration, hyperosmolar plasma, and altered consciousness. It most often occurs in type 2 diabetes, often in the setting of physiologic stress.

Question 7

Answer 7

• hyper-thyroidism (1/4)
  
  • Goitre
    
    • A goitre, or goiter, is a swelling in the neck resulting from an enlarged thyroid gland. Worldwide, over 90% of goitre cases are caused by iodine deficiency.
  • Thyroiditis
  • Pit adenoma
  • thryroid cancer
• hyper-thyroidism (3/4)
  
  • Graves
    
    • Graves’ disease is an immune system disorder that results in the overproduction of thyroid hormones (hyperthyroidism)

Question 8

Answer 8

• Hypo-thyroidism (min)
  
  • over-response to hyper-thyroidism treatment
  • surgery/ radiation
• Hypo-thyroidism (maj)
  
  • Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
    
    • an autoimmune disease that damages the thyroid gland

Question 9

Answer 9

• Pituitary
  
  • GH
    
    • acromegaly
      
      • a disorder that results from excess growth hormone (GH) after the growth plates have closed. The initial symptom is typically enlargement of the hands and feet.
  • Vasopressin
    
    • SIADH
      
      • a condition in which the body makes too much antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This hormone helps the kidneys control the amount of water your body loses through the urine. SIADH causes the body to retain too much water
  • Pituitary adenoma
    
    • Most pituitary adenomas are slow-growing and benign

Question 10

Answer 10

• primary, secondary and tertiary hyper-parathyroidism
  
  • a condition in which one or more of your parathyroid glands become overactive and release (secrete) too much parathyroid hormone (PTH). This causes the levels of calcium in your blood to rise, a condition known as ++hypercalcemia++
• hypo-parathyroidism
  
  • Hypoparathyroidism is the state of decreased secretion or activity of parathyroid hormone (PTH). This leads to decreased blood levels of calcium (hypocalcemia) and increased levels of blood phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia)