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end of year exam Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

cell theory

A
  1. all organisms are made up of one or more cells
  2. all cells come from pre-existing cells
  3. cells are the basic unit of structure and function of living things.
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2
Q

prokaryotic cells

A

lack any membrane bound organelles including a nucleus

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3
Q

eukaryotic cells

A

cells that process membrane bound organelles as well as a nucleus that hold the genetic information

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4
Q

membrane bound organelles

A

a cellular structure that is bound by biological membrane that controls the movement of substances between the organelle and the cells cytosol allowing each organelle to have a different composition from the surrounding cytosol and other organelles.

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5
Q

plant cells v animal cells

A

plant cells have a cell wall and contain a large singular vacuole

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6
Q

benefits of compartmentalisation

A
  • allows enzymes and reactions for a particular function to be close together high concentration in the right conditions, such as optimum pH levels, so that processes within the organelles are very efficient
  • allows processes that require different environments to occur at the same time in the same cell.
  • makes the cell less vulnerable to changes to its external environment, affecting the cytosol more than the membrane bound organelles
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7
Q

nucleus structure and function

A 
structure- 
membrane bound-double membrane 
contains DNA 
function- 
contains hereditary information
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8
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum structure and function

A

structure-
membrane bound-network of cisternae
function-
processes and modifies proteins

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9
Q

ribosome structure and function

A

structure-
made of proteins and rRNA
function-
synthesises proteins

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10
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum structure and function

A

structure-
membrane bound - networks of cisternae
function-
synthesises lipids

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11
Q

centrioles

A

a pair of small cylindrical structures composed of microtubules that are present in most eukaryotic cells and are involved in cell division and the formation of certain cell structures

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12
Q

phospholipids

A

hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head that make up the bilayer of the plasma membrane

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13
Q

cell surface area to volume ratio

A

the surface area of the plasma membrane around he cella affect the rate of exchange that is possible between the cell and its environment and can affect

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14
Q

cytoplasm

A

gives cells its shape

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15
Q

cell membrane

A

controls what come in and out of the cell

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16
Q

mitochondria

A

produces ATP

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17
Q

Golgi

A

modifies, sorts and packs macromolecules that are synthesised by the cell

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18
Q

plasma membrane

A

controls movement between the extracellular fluid and the intracellular fluid (cytosol)

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19
Q

what can move through the bilayer

A

small molecules that are hydrophobic

  • oxygen
  • carbon dioxide
  • colesterol
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20
Q

diffusion

A

passive (without energy) movement of molecules among a concentration gradient until they reach an equilibrium

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21
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

hydrophilic molecules (glucose) that cannot pass through the bilayer move through transport proteins that are in the membrane passive process and moves along concentration gradient until an equilibrium is reached

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22
Q

hypertonic

A

higher concentration in solute

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23
Q

hypotonic

A

lower concentration in solute

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24
Q

isotonic

A

equal concentration in solute

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25
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration that move through portions called aquaporins and is a passive form of transport

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26
Q

polar molecules

A

uncharged overall however one end of the molecule is +vely charged and the other is -vely charged. other molecules that are polar can dissolve in water ie glucose polar molecules are hydrophilic

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27
Q

non polar molecules

A

no charged areas ie lipids other molecules that can dissolve in lipids are non polar non polar molecules are hydrophobic

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28
Q

surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)

A

as the cell gets larger the SA compared to the V decreases and vise versa

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29
Q

biomacromolecules

A

large molecules used by cells also known as polymers - molecules made up of many subunits (monomers)

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30
Q

CHO(N)
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,(N)itrogen
CARBOHYDRATE

A 
monomer -
monosaccharides 
- glucose 
- fructose 
- B-galactsidose

polymer -
polysaccharides
- cellulose
- starch

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31
Q

CHN(P)
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen (P)hosperous
PROTIEN

A

monomer
amino acid

polymer
proteins

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32
Q

CHO
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
lipids

A

monomer
fatty acids (not usually a true monomer)
- glycerol

polymer
fats and oils (not usually a true polymer)
- phospholipids

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33
Q

CHONP

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

A 
monomer
nucleodies 
- adenine 
- thymine
- cytosine
- guanine

polymer
nucleic acids
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- RNA (ribonucleic acid)

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34
Q

photosynthesis

A

carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

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35
Q

adaptations

A

a genetically controlled structure, behaviour or physiological feature that enhances the survival and reproductive potential of an organism in particular environmental conditions

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36
Q

structural adaptations

A

physical features of organism (external) ie cold environment - more hair, hot environment - large ears (to release heat)

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37
Q

behavioural adaptations

A

the way organism act ie seeking shade or shelter, nocturnal

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38
Q

physiological adaptations

A

functional adaptations to do with the inner workings if the organism (internal) ie production of venom.

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39
Q

abiotic

A

non-living thins, not made of cells (rock, minerals)

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40
Q

biotic

A

living things or have lived (tree, wood)

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41
Q

tolerance range

A

for each environmental factors an organism has a tolerance rage in which it can survive (bell curve)

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42
Q

limiting factors

A

things that prevent a population form growing any larger. (temp. water, salt concentration.)

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43
Q

endotherm

A

internally generated heat to maintain body temperature

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44
Q

exotherm

A

rely on external heat source to maintain body temperature changes within their environment

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45
Q

receptor

A

a specialised structure that can detect a specific stimulus or initiate a response

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46
Q

control centre

A

feedback mechanism that determines the response required and sends an appropriate signal tot the effector

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47
Q

effector

A

a component in the feedback system that causes a change in order to reverse a situation to the normal range

48
Q

negative feedback loop

A

a control response that works to maintain homeostasis by activating an opposite response tor return to a normal range

49
Q

ADH

A

antidiuretic hormone - regulates water reabsorption it is synthesised in th hypothalamus and transported to the posterior pituitary gland where it is stored
acts on kidney to increase permeability to water

50
Q

insulin

A

peptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas regulates metabolism promoting the absorption of glucose within cells stimulates glycogen formation

51
Q

glucagon

A

peptide hormone produced by alpha cells in the pancreas raises the concentration of glucose in the blood by

52
Q

hormones

A

signalling molecules that are responsible for communication between organs to regulate physiological and behavioural processes

53
Q

receptor molecules

A

molecules that bind to specific hormones - binding to the hormone/receptor initiates cellular effects to mediate a cellular response

54
Q

hypothalamus

A

a region of the brain that receives information from all parts of the body’s condition used to regulate hormones from the pituitary gland

55
Q

pancreas

A

responsible for releasing glucagon and insulin

56
Q

cerebral cortex

A

ultimate control and information processing centre in the brain

57
Q

vasoconstriction

A

the narrowing of the capillaries (a response to being cold)

58
Q

vasodilation

A

the widening of the capillaries enhances blood flow to areas that lack oxygen/nutrients (response for being too hot)

59
Q

glycogen

A

multi branch polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage

60
Q

autotrophs

A

self feeders – able to make their own organic compounds using energy and inorganic compounds (carbon dioxide, water) which come from their physical environment to synthesis organic compounds

61
Q

Heterotrophs

A

consumers – they obtain organic compounds from autotrophs or other heterotrophs

62
Q

photoautotroph

A
  • organism that obtain the energy required for carbon fixation from light or solar energy. Combine carbon dioxide and water using sunlight to produce organic compounds aka photosynthesis ie green plants, algae
63
Q

Chemoautotroph

A
  • obtain the energy they need for carbon fixation through inorganic chemical reactions (chemosynthesis).
64
Q

cellular respiration

A

the process in which organisms transform chemical energy from organic compounds into ATP by breaking apart glucose lipids and proteins.

65
Q

glycolysis

A

The first process that takes place in cellular respiration, involves the splitting of glucose into two pyruvate molecules this occurs in the cytosol and does not require oxygen (anaerobic). Uses two ATP in breaking down one glucose molecule, producong four more – net production of two ATP molecules.

66
Q

aerobic respiration

A

Glucose + oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water + available energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O

67
Q

Light dependant photosynthesis

A

occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast, process where photolysis occurs, water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas

68
Q

Light independent reaction

A

produce glucose water and ADP and do not require solar energy. Takes place in the stream of the chloroplasts

69
Q

temp. affect on photosynthesis

A

all light dependant and light independent reactions are catalysed by enzymes, temperature increases the activity of enzymes however become denatured after the optimum temperature has been reached making the rate of photo synthesis decline rapidly. Optimum temperature differs per plant dependent on environmental factors

70
Q

light affect on photosynthesis

A

 When light intensity is low the light dependant reactions can not occur, therefore at night, light intensity is a limiting factor because photosynthesis cannot occur. As the light increases the rate of photosynthesis will increase, however at a certain level of light intensity the effect of the light will plateau

71
Q

carbon dioxide affect on photosynthesis

A

Carbon dioxide is used to produce glucose like light the rate of photosynthesis will increase as there is more carbon dioxide is available, however will plateau once a maximum has been reached

72
Q

carbon dioxide affect on photosynthesis

A

Carbon dioxide is used to produce glucose like light the rate of photosynthesis will increase as there is more carbon dioxide is available, however will plateau once a maximum has been reached

73
Q

ATP

A

the universal carrier of energy in living organisms. Molecules of ATP are the immediately unusable chemical energy that is required for cell processes . It contains two high energy bond between the in organic phosphate groups, that can be easily broken to release a small amount of energy. This energy is used to carry out all the energy dependant processes of cells. When the molecule of ATP gives up its energy, it splits in to a molecule of ADP (adenosine triphosphate) and a molecule of phosphate. It can be recycled by the ADP to create ATP again from the breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration using much less energy tha if it were to make an entirely new ATP molecule.

74
Q

stages of the cell cycle

A
  • G1
  • S
  • G2
  • MITOSIS
75
Q

G1

A

the cell gains energy and undergoes metabolic processes such as protein and membrane synthesis - almost doubles in size

76
Q

S

A

chromosome and DNA replication

77
Q

G2

A

cell undergoes secondary stage of growth, metabolism and energy acquisition prepares for mitosis by synthesising proteins needed for division

78
Q

Mitosis

A
  • prophase
  • metaphase
  • anaphase
  • telophase
  • cytokenisis
79
Q

prophase

A

dna finishes condensing and chromosomes become visible, centrioles move to opposite sides of the nucleus

80
Q

metaphase

A

chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

81
Q

anaphase

A

splitting of the centromeres separated to opposite poles

82
Q

telophase

A

nuclear membrane forms around the two sets of chromosomes that become thinner and longer

83
Q

cytokinesis

A

the cell splits

84
Q

cell cycle checkpoints

A

G1 checkpoint - the cell is large enough and their are enough organelles
G2 checkpoint - has DNA been replicated correctly
M checkpoint - have the spindle fibres been correctly attached to the DNA

85
Q

chromosomes

A

complex structures consisting of DNA strands around histone proteins carrying the heredity information of the cell in the form of genes

86
Q

centromere

A

part of the chromosome that attaches to spindle fibres during mitosis and where two sister chromatids of a double strand chromosome are joined

87
Q

haploid

A

one individual chromosome for each chromosome type (n)

88
Q

diploid

A

a homologous pair for each chromosome (2n)

89
Q

embryonic stem cells

A
  • relatively undifferentiated
  • cells of embryos
  • can be obtained from surplus 3-5 day old embryos from IVF programs
  • can become many types of cells
  • can replicate indefinitely
90
Q

adult stem cells

A
  • present in a small number of some adult tissues (hair follicles, bone marrow, spinal cord, germ cells)
  • remain as stem cells through an individuals life - can give rise only to a limited range of cells
  • the biological purpose is to repair and regenerate aged and ages tissue
  • cannot replicate indefinitely
91
Q

totipontecy

A
  • capable of giving rise to any cell type

-

92
Q

pluripotent

A
  • differentiate into any of the germ layers
  • present in blastocysts
  • the primordial germ cells that give rise to gamets are also pluripotent
93
Q

multipotent

A
  • give rise to multiple but limited cell types

-

94
Q

unipotent

A
  • only differentiate into one cell type

- found in a specific tissue but can divide repeatedly

95
Q

fission

A
  • most common form of asexual reproduction
  • occurs when a singular parent cell divides in to two approx. equal parts and each of them develop into a new organism
    fission in unicellular organism occurs either by binary fission (prokaryotes) or mitosis (eukaryotes)
96
Q

longitudinal fission

A

occurs when the cell splits along the longest axis

97
Q

transverse fission

A

occurs when the cell splits across the shortest axis

98
Q

strobilation

A

occurs in multicellular organisms

occurs in cnidarians and coral polyps

99
Q

budding

A

new individual rises as an outgrowth or bud from the parent

occurs in yeast, small multicellular organisms such as hydra

100
Q

vegetative propagation

A

growth if specialised plant tissue that can grow into a new plant if separated from the parent
rhizomes
stolons

101
Q

meiosis interphase

A
  • 4 chromsomes

- 2 homologous pairs

102
Q

meiosis prophase I

A
  • crossing over

- homologous pairs

103
Q

meiosis metaphase I

A
  • chromosome pairs align nuclear membrane breaks down
104
Q

meiosis anaphase I

A
  • homologous pair seperate
105
Q

meiosis telophase I (cytokenesis)

A
  • 2 daughter cells

- haploid

106
Q

meiosis prophase II

A
  • chromosome do not pair
107
Q

meiosis metaphase II

A
  • chromosomes line up in the middle

- nucleus dissolves

108
Q

meiosis anaphase II

A
  • chromosomes separate
109
Q

meiosis telophase II

A
  • 4 daughter cells

- haploid

110
Q

heterozygous

A

two different alleles ie Pp

111
Q

homozygous

A

both copies are the same alleles ie PP or pp

112
Q

genes

A

a section of dna that contains a particular set of instructions that usually instructs the cell to produce a type of protein

113
Q

allels

A

a version of a particular gene

114
Q

dominant

A

only needs one copy of the alleles to express the trait

115
Q

recessive

A

need both alleles to be expressed

116
Q

genotype

A

combination of genes that carry the DNA

117
Q

phenotype

A

the displayed gene (how it looks)

biology (3 decks)

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