Emotions

Question 1

James-Lange theory

Answer 1

Emotions = the interpretations of physiological responses triggered by external stimuli

• physical change will be felt first and then the brain ‘understands’ that is a specific feel (eg emotion of fear)

Question 2

Cannon-Bard theory

Answer 2

argumentative critique to the James-Lange theory

• physiological changes and experience of emotion occur at the same time

Question 3

What are emotions?

Answer 3

Emotions represent:
- short, transient episodes (phenomena)
- a neurophysiological response to stimuli that evoke a system of components

• pepare the organism to respond
• determine together the organism’s behaviour

Question 4

Components of emotion: phenomena

Answer 4

Autonomous, visceral phenomena
- governed by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
-> include changes in cardiovascular activity, muscle tension, sweating, pallor/redness of facial skin

Somatic, skeletal-motor interactions
- expressed through ‘body language’ such as posture and movement (‘fight or flight’) and represent nonverbal communication

Personal experience or subjective feeling
- internal, short-term responses to interoceptive signals, influencing orientation
-> emotions like shame, anger, fear, sadness, jealousy, contempt are often concealed

Question 5

Limbic system: What parts of the brain?

Answer 5

• cingulate gyrus
• orbital and medial prefrontal cortex (OMPFC)
• mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus
• ventral basal ganglia
• hypothalamus
• amygdala

Question 6

Feelings (definition)

Answer 6

= raw data
- mental experiences of body states, including physiological reactions like hunger, thirst and pain

Question 7

Emotions (definition)

Answer 7

= subjective feelings
- are complex psychological states that involve subjective experiences, physiological responses and expressive behaviours
- thoughts, memories and experiences shape them and ten to be longer-lasting than feelings

Fundamental dimensions: arousal and valence (hedonic tone)

Question 8

Key goal in neuroscience (research on emotion)

Answer 8

Understanding:
- the neurobiological basis of emotion
- contributions of affective neural processing to higher brain functions
- behaviours that reflect vulnerability of emotional neural circuits when exposed to drugs that alter their normally adaptive operations in goal-directed behaviour

Question 9

Brain regions affected by addiction

Answer 9

Basal ganglia
- reward and motivation
- forming habits and behaviours

Extended Amygdala
- stress and anxiety
- flight or flight response

Prefrontal cortex
- decision-making
- impulse control

Question 10

What part of the brain is involved in the choice to try a drug?

Answer 10

Prefrontal cortex - intention/decision in the executive portion of the brain

Question 12

What part of the brain is involved in the consumption of the drug?

Answer 12

Nucelus accumbens in the cerebral cortex
- responds quickly to drugs by releasing a flood of dopamine

Question 13

What neurotransmitter is involved in drug consumption?

Answer 13

Dopamine
- often called ‘pleasure molecule’ –> BUT more correctly defined as a chemical that underlies motivation
- sensation of pleasure (orchestrated by dopamine) likely arose to encourage repetition of behaviours that support individual and species survival (eg eating, social interaction, sex)

Question 14

Consequences of drug consumption

Answer 14

• high level of direct stimulation powerfully encourages repetition
• results in a dampened response of the emotional reinforcement circuitry to natural (less potent) rewards

Question 15

Dopamine

Answer 15

= neuromodulator
- influences the processing of reinforcement signal (cues)
- Nucleus accumbens (Nacc) and VTA are primary sites where drugs interact with the processing of neural signals related to emotional reinforcement
- release of natural dopamine is phasic and subjective to experience-dependent plasticity
- difference between wanting and liking

Question 16

Wanting vs Liking

Answer 16

Robinson and Berridge
- addicition is driven by an enhanced wanting (craving) rather than liking (pleasure) of the drug itself
- repeated drug use sensities the brain’s reward system –> particularly the dopamine system, making individuals more sensitive to drug-related cues –> incerase in craving and drug-seeking behaviour
- incentive-sensitisation leads to shift in brain where cues associated with the drug become more compelling, contributing to relapse

highlights neural mechnisms underlying craving and urges a focus on targeting the heightened wanting in addiction treatment

Question 17

Joseph LeDoux’s theory (fast and slow pathways)

Answer 17

Fast: X-system (reflexive)
- ‘low road’
= quick, reflexive response for immediate survival

• stimulus -> sensory thalamus -> amygdala -> emotional response
• purpose: rapid, automatic emotional response to potential threats
• advantage: quick survival mechanism, primes the body for immediate reaction

Slow: C-system (reflective)
- ‘high road’
= a slower, more evaluative response for thoughtful decision-making

• stimuli -> sensory thalamus -> frontal cortex/sensory cortex -> amygdala -> emotional response
• purpose: detailed evaluation of the emotional stimulus
• advantage: enables nuanced and reasoned responses, refines the response to prevent overreaction

Dyregulation can lead to disorders like PTSD (overactive fast pathway) or anxiety disorders

Question 18

Neurochemical basis of love

Answer 18

Oxytocin
= bonding or love hormone
- promotes trust, empathy and social bonding
- released during physical touch, childbirth, intimate moments
- enhances feelings of attachment and connection, especially in long-term relationships

Dopamine
= brain’s reward system, dopamine fuels feelings of pleasure and motivation
- associated with the euphoria of romantic attraction
- peaks during the early stages of love, creating feelings of excitement and infatuation

Vasopressin
= critical role in long-term pair bonding and monogamy
- linked to loyalty and protective behaviours in relationships

Question 19

Neural pathways of love

Answer 19

Reward system
- romantic love activates regions involved in reward and pleasure
- Ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens

Amygdala suppression
- love can reduce activity in the amygdala –> damepning fear and anxiety, supports trust and vulnerability

Prefrontal cortex
- usually responsible for rational thinking
- in early romatic love, may be less active –> leads to impulsive decisions and idealised perceptions of a partner

Angular gyrus
- associated with complex language functions and the mirror neuron system
- helps anticipate actions of a loved one

Basal ganglia
- associated with motor control
- also involved in promoting attachment

Question 21

Psychopathy: Differences between healthy controla and psychopaths

Answer 21

Brain regions (fMRI)
- cingulate cortex
- insula
- frontal cortex
- amygdala

Brain regions (PET)
- Orbital cortex hypofrontality = less activity in the frontal lobe
- emotional responses –> indicated by active frontal lobe
- psychopaths show less activity in the frontal lobe –> hypofrontality
- less activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala