Educational Reform Flashcards
What was the state of formal education before it became compulsory?
Provision of formal education was very patchy, primarily provided by churches, charities, and private foundations rather than the state.
When did compulsory education begin in Scotland and England/Wales?
Compulsory education began in 1872 in Scotland and 1880 in England and Wales.
What prompted the state to increase its role in education from the 1870s?
The need for newly enfranchised workers to use their vote responsibly and concerns over ‘national efficiency’ prompted increased state involvement.
What were ‘board schools’?
‘Board schools’ were new schools established by the state to fill gaps in education from the 1870s.
What type of education did the majority of schools provide before the 1902 Education Act?
The majority of schools provided only an elementary education to the age of 11 or 12, focusing on basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious instruction.
What did the 1902 Education Act achieve?
The 1902 Education Act increased the chances of grammar school education for able working-class children by allowing state funding for non-fee-paying students.
How many grammar schools offered places to non-fee-paying children after the 1902 Education Act?
Over 1,000 grammar schools offered a quarter of their places to non-fee-paying children.
What was the ratio of elementary school students who gained places in grammar schools by 1914?
Only 56 out of every 1,000 elementary school students gained places in grammar schools by 1914.
True or False: Secondary education was accessible to all social classes before 1914.
False.
Fill in the blank: Before the 1902 Education Act, the majority of schools provided an education only up to the age of _______.
11 or 12.
What was the concern of reform-minded politicians regarding education in Britain?
They felt it was unfair that the quality and duration of education was so dependent on wealth and class background.
What were some key questions regarding education after the Second World War?
Should schools promote discipline and knowledge acquisition or be more progressive? Should they promote competition or co-operation?
What did R. A. Butler attempt to address with his 1944 Education Act?
He aimed to tackle various educational questions, but his system faced criticism almost immediately.
What was the gender divide in education before 1918?
There was a marked difference in curriculums, with girls studying domestic skills and boys studying manual skills.
How did the industrial revolution influence education for boys and girls?
It led to the idea that boys and girls needed different spheres of education, as men left home for factory work while women often did unpaid domestic work.
What was the state of university education before 1918?
Access was limited primarily to those from privileged backgrounds, with low government funding and no new universities founded until the 19th century.
What was the focus of the new ‘red-brick’ universities founded between 1880 and 1909?
They focused on providing men with skills for the workplace, especially in engineering.
What was the significance of the Hadow Report?
It recommended the division of schooling into primary and secondary stages.
What did the Robbins Report recommend?
It called for doubling university places and expanding technical colleges.
What was the Labour Party’s pledge in their election manifesto?
They pledged to create comprehensive schools.
What educational approach did Plowden recommend?
He recommended a ‘child-centered’ approach to education.
What was the aim of the 1918 ‘Fisher’ Education Act?
To help with the construction of a ‘home fit for heroes’ and widen access to education.
What were the three ways H. A. L. Fisher aimed to widen access to education?
Increasing the school-leaving age to 14, providing nursery schools, and scrapping fees for elementary education.
What provisions did the 1918 ‘Fisher’ Education Act include?
Punishing those who employed school-age children and providing free health checks for secondary school pupils.
What hindered the implementation of nursery and continuation schools after the 1918 Act?
A lack of funds following the 1922 ‘Geddes Axe’ cuts to government spending.
Who was commissioned to compile a report on education in 1924?
Sir Henry Hadow.
What did the 1926 Hadow Report recommend?
Replacing elementary schools with primary schools and establishing three types of secondary schools.
What were the three types of secondary schools proposed in the Hadow Report?
Grammar schools, technical schools, and modern schools.
What was the tripartite system?
The three-pronged structure of primary and secondary education recommended by the Hadow Report.
What was the outcome of Trevelyan’s attempt to raise the school-leaving age to 15 in 1930?
It was rejected by the House of Lords due to cost and practicality concerns.
What was the impact of the school-leaving age not being enforced until 1944?
Children were often found in work in their early teens.
What was the percentage of 2-4-year-olds in school in 1921?
8.8%.
What was the percentage of 5-10-year-olds in school in 1938?
92.4%.
What was the percentage of 15-18-year-olds in school in 1951?
3.2%.
What was the aim of the 1918 ‘Fisher’ Education Act?
To help with the construction of a ‘home fit for heroes’ and widen access to education.
What were the three ways H. A. L. Fisher aimed to widen access to education?
Increasing the school-leaving age to 14, providing nursery schools, and scrapping fees for elementary education.
What provisions did the 1918 ‘Fisher’ Education Act include?
Punishing those who employed school-age children and providing free health checks for secondary school pupils.
What hindered the implementation of nursery and continuation schools after the 1918 Act?
A lack of funds following the 1922 ‘Geddes Axe’ cuts to government spending.
Who was commissioned to compile a report on education in 1924?
Sir Henry Hadow.
What did the 1926 Hadow Report recommend?
Replacing elementary schools with primary schools and establishing three types of secondary schools.
What were the three types of secondary schools proposed in the Hadow Report?
Grammar schools, technical schools, and modern schools.
What was the tripartite system?
The three-pronged structure of primary and secondary education recommended by the Hadow Report.
What was the outcome of Trevelyan’s attempt to raise the school-leaving age to 15 in 1930?
It was rejected by the House of Lords due to cost and practicality concerns.
What was the impact of the school-leaving age not being enforced until 1944?
Children were often found in work in their early teens.
What was the percentage of 2-4-year-olds in school in 1921?
8.8%.
What was the percentage of 5-10-year-olds in school in 1938?
92.4%.
What was the percentage of 15-18-year-olds in school in 1951?
3.2%.
What was the amount spent on education in Britain in 1920?
43.2 million euros
What was the amount spent on education in Britain in 1980?
13,049.0 million euros
What was one of the earliest responses to the Beveridge Report?
The 1944 Education Act introduced by R. A. Butler
What was the school-leaving age increased to in 1947?
15 years old
What exam was central to the 1944 Education Act?
The 11-plus exam
What type of schools specialized in mechanical and technical education?
Secondary Technical Schools
What percentage of pupils attended Secondary Modern Schools in the 1950s?
70 percent
What type of education did Grammar Schools provide?
A highly academic education focused on English literature, classics, and pure maths
What was the intended outcome of the ‘parity of esteem’ concept?
To ensure equal respect for all types of secondary education
What did the Crosland Circular (1965) advocate for?
Universal comprehensive education
What was the percentage of pupils attending comprehensive schools by 1964?
10 percent
What was the consequence for LEAs that did not adopt comprehensive reform according to the 1966 document?
They would not receive funding for new schools or school refurbishment
What were the core subjects taught to boys and girls at junior schools?
Literacy and numeracy
What subjects were girls encouraged to focus on in Grammar Schools?
Arts and languages
What was the main criticism of the tripartite system?
It divided students based on their ability
What were arguments for comprehensive education?
Comprehensive education aimed to help many children avoid poor secondary modern schools and promote social advancement for working-class families with bright children.
What were arguments against comprehensive education?
Grammar schools had more resources than secondary modern schools, and many were seen as excellent institutions producing successful students.
What was the impact of the 11-plus exam?
The 11-plus exam favored middle-class children, leading to only two percent of those who failed remaining in school at age 17.
What happened to grammar schools in 1975?
The government forced direct grant grammar schools to go comprehensive, resulting in many becoming independent due to removed funding.
What was the public opinion on grammar schools?
The majority of the public wanted to keep grammar schools, despite some wanting to scrap the 11-plus.
What was the trend in comprehensive education from 1970 to 1979?
The percentage of students educated at comprehensive schools increased from 33% in 1970 to 90% by 1979.
What challenges did LEAs face in managing schools?
LEAs struggled with conflicting aims of different head teachers and teachers, leading to variations in curriculum delivery.
What were the progressive reforms introduced in primary schools?
These included a large nursery school building program, more project-based work, and a focus on learning through play.
What did Lady Plowden emphasize in her report?
She emphasized that schools should be communities where children learn to live as children, not just as future adults.
What was the reaction to relaxed discipline in some schools?
Parents became concerned about relaxed discipline and the lack of structure in some schools, leading to debates about educational practices.
What was the impact of comprehensive education on O-Level qualifications?
Only the top 20 percent of students took O-Levels; the rest left with no qualifications until the CSE was introduced in 1965. Pupils at comprehensives were streamed into CSE or O-Level classes.
What was the perception of CSE qualifications by employers?
CSE qualifications were seen as a second-class qualification by employers.
What did the 1973 Education (Work Experience) Act change?
It raised the compulsory school leaving age from 15 to 16 and allowed LEAs to set up work experience in place of lessons for final-year students.
How did the 1973 Education (Work Experience) Act help school leavers?
It helped school leavers find work in the tough economic climate of the mid-1970s.
What contributed to more pupils attending university?
Government funding boosted the number of places available at new universities such as Sussex and Kent.
What change did some universities make regarding O-Level Latin?
Some universities dropped the requirement for applicants to have O-Level Latin, increasing applications from comprehensive schools.
What were the three Rs associated with St. Trendy’s Incomprehensible School?
Rioting, Rudeness, Revolution.
What was the influence of William Beveridge and the Beveridge Report on social reform?
The Beveridge Report influenced social reform significantly, though some consequences were not anticipated by Beveridge.
Consider the unexpected social changes that arose from the report.
In what ways did levels of social reform turn out better than Beveridge intended?
Levels of social reform exceeded Beveridge’s expectations in various aspects, leading to broader social welfare initiatives.
Explore specific examples of successful reforms.
What was the impact of Anthony Crosland and the Crostand Circular on education?
Crosland’s Circular aimed to enhance comprehensive education, but some consequences were not anticipated.
Analyze the unintended effects on educational structures.
How did the consequences of the Crostand Circular differ from intended outcomes?
The outcomes of the Circular diverged from Crosland’s intentions, resulting in unexpected challenges and successes in education.
Review specific instances of these differing outcomes.
What factors contributed to the growth of university education in Britain from 1918 to 1979?
The growth was driven by an increase in secondary school pupils and government recognition of higher education’s economic value.
Examine the statistics of university funding and student enrollment.
How did government funding for universities change from 1919 to 1962?
Government funding increased from £1 million in 1919 to over £80 million in 1962, significantly supporting university education.
Consider the implications of this funding increase on student fees.
What was the trend in student fees from 1920 to 1950?
The proportion of university costs met by student fees fell from a third to under an eighth during this period.
This shift indicates increased financial support for students.
What allowance was provided to students in 1962?
In 1962, local authorities were required to provide an allowance or ‘grant’ to students, allowing them to focus on studies.
This grant aimed to reduce the need for paid work among students.
How did student numbers change from 1900 to 1962?
Student numbers grew from around 20,000 in 1900 to 113,000 in 1962, with significant increases after the Second World War.
This growth reflects the expanding access to higher education.
What role did Oxford and Cambridge play in university education before the 20th century?
Oxford and Cambridge dominated university education, educating 22 percent of all students in 1939.
Their emphasis was on classics and history, particularly at Oxford.
What was unique about the University of London compared to Oxbridge?
The University of London was largely non-residential and allowed external students to sit final examinations, unlike Oxbridge.
It specialized in science, engineering, and medicine.
Which smaller university colleges became fully independent after the Second World War?
Colleges such as Reading (1926), Nottingham, Southampton, and Exeter (1948-57) became fully independent post-war.
These colleges were initially founded under the guidance of older universities.
What was the percentage of university attendance for the relevant age group in the USA compared to the UK?
In the USA, 50 percent of that age group went to university, while the figures were much smaller in the UK.
What was the percentage of female Oxbridge students in 1961?
In 1961, only 13 percent of Oxbridge students were female.
What did the Robbins Report address?
The Robbins Report addressed funding and the number of places available for prospective students.
What was the outcome of the Robbins Report?
The Robbins Report recommended a universal national grant for all students with a university place and a large increase in state funding.
How many universities were there in the UK between 1962 and 1970?
The number of universities increased from 22 to 46 between 1962 and 1970.
What are ‘plate-glass universities’?
Plate-glass universities, such as York and Lancaster, were known for their unique architectural style.
What was the purpose of the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA)?
The CNAA enabled non-university institutions to award degrees.
What was the status of polytechnics compared to universities?
Polytechnics were meant to have the same status as universities but were seen as offering inferior degrees.
What was the Open University and when was it launched?
The Open University was launched in 1969 and aimed primarily at adults, using radio and television for remote learning.
What was the increase in full-time university students from 1970 to 1983?
The number of full-time students increased from 185,000 to 237,000 between 1970 and 1983.
What was the percentage of female students in full-time university education in 1983?
In 1983, 42 percent of full-time university students were female.
What social impact did increased university education have?
It increased the number of people who could demand high salaries for skilled jobs and promoted equality of opportunity.
How did university education affect social mobility?
A university degree became a sign of increased social mobility for working-class people.
What change occurred in the expectations of young people after the war?
The pressure to leave school and home at a young age was not as strong as it had been before the war.
