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UPSC Prep > Ecology, Biodiversity, Climate Change > Flashcards

Ecology, Biodiversity, Climate Change Flashcards

1
Q

Biotic vs. Abiotic

Auto Ecology vs. Syn Ecology

A

Biotic- Living Components - plant, animals, microbes etc.

Abiotic - Non-Living Components - Air, Soil, Water

Auto Ecology - Focused on a single, individual species present at a location i.e. one-horned rhino in Kazi

Syn Ecology - study of many species interactions in a Biome.

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2
Q

What is the biological hierarchy from smallest to largest?

A
  1. Cell - Basic Unit // Individual Organization - Highest Unit
  2. Population - individual species found at a particular location at a particular point of time forms a population of that species. eg. Asiatic lion pop at Gir
  3. Biotic/Biological Community - Population of different species found in a particular location
  4. Ecosystem - formed through the interaction of various biotic and abiotic components and characterized by a continuous flow of energy and recycling of nutrients (decomposition).
  5. Biome - larger version of an ecosystem with greater spatial conditions eg. tropical rainforests
  6. Biosphere - all biomes taken together
  7. Ecotones - transitional zones between two biological communities
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3
Q

What are the kinds of biotic interactions?

A
  1. Mutualism/Symbiotic : ++
    - leguminous plants and nitrogen fixing bacteria. Process of polination.
  2. Commenalism: + 0
    - remoras eating leftover food of the shark without depleting the shark’s resources i.e. one benefits and the other is neutral
  3. Amenalism: - 0
    - Shading out of one plant by a taller and wider one
    - allelopathy (neem eg.) where in one plant is inhibited negatively by the secretions of another
  4. Parasitism: +-, ++, +0
    - Mosquitoes, ticks and the protozoan that causes malaria
  5. Competition - -
    - two predators in the same ecosystem
  6. Predation + -
    - One negatively affecting the other
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4
Q

What is the food chain?

Discuss few key aspects of the food chain?

What are the different kinds of food chains?

What is a food web?

A
  1. The food chain is a linear sequence of organizms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats another
  2. Each level in the chain is known as a “trophic” level
  3. Food webs consists of many interconnected food chains

A: Producers/Autotrophs (make their own organic molecules)

  • Photoautotrophs i.e. plants that use sunlight to make organic compounds out of CO2
  • Chemoautotrophs i.e. use energy from chemicals to build organic compounds out of CO2

|

B: Consumers/heterotrophs (get organic molecules by eating other organisms)

  • Macro consumers i.e. feed on plants or animals or both
  • Micro consumers i.e. saprotrophs/decomposers

Two Food Chains: Grazing and Detritus

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5
Q

Ecological Pyramids

What are the three kinds? What are their shapes?

A
  1. Pyramid of Numbers : Upright or Inverted
    - Upright in most ecosystems eg grass lands
    - Inverted only in some tree ecosystems
  2. Pyramid of Biomass: Upright or Inverted
    - Upright in most terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
    - Invested in marine ecosystems
  3. Pyramid of energy
    - Always upright eg. pond ecosystem
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6
Q

What is a sentinel species?

What is ecological succession?

A
  1. It refers to organisms, often animals, that are used to detect risks to humans by providing advance warning of danger.
    i. e. canaries in coal mines can sense Carbon Monoxide
  2. It is a process of directional change in vegetation on an ecological time scale i.e. primary, secondary
    - Rocks colonized by pioneer species followed by sequential development of biotic communities - rocks, lichens, annual plants, perennial plants, shrubs, trees, pines
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7
Q

What is biodiversity and what are the levels within it?

Important terms associated with species?

A
  1. Biodiversity or biological diversity describes the variety of living beings on earth i.e. it describes the degree of variation of life encompassing microorganisms, plants, animals, ecosystems such as coral reefs, forests etc.
  2. Levels of biodiversity are genetic (within a species), species (across species), and ecosystem (different ecosystems)

Flagship species: the chosen one to represent an environmental cause

Indicator species: one whose presence indicates the presence of a set of other species/and whose absence can indicate a similar lack of that species.

Keystone species: it is a species whose addition or loss will lead to a major change in an ecosystem

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8
Q

What are invasive species?

What are some common invasive species of India?

A

These are alien species introduced by humans either intentionally or accidentally that can have impacts both negative and positive on biodiversity.

Flora:

  • Prospis Juliflora
  • Water Hyacinth
  • Snowflake Corals
  • Lantana

Fauna

  • African apple snail
  • Papaya Mealy Bug
  • Amazon sailfin catfish
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9
Q

Air is an abiotic factor, what is its composition?

A
  1. 78% Nitrogen
  2. 21% Oxygen
  3. 0.09% Argon
  4. 0.03% CO2 - increased due to global warming
  5. 0-4% H20 Vapur - variable component in Air
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10
Q

What are the areas in the atmosphere and their corresponding distances?

A

0-15KM : Troposphere (more than 90% of gases from atmosphere are concentrated here. Thunder, clouds etc take place here.

16-50KM: Stratosphere

51-100km: Mesosphere

101-500km: Thermosphere

Every 1000m increase in height is a 6.5 celsius decrease. Known as lapse rate.

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11
Q

What are the 5 kingdoms of life?

A
  1. Monera
    - bacteria and all its forms
    - cyanobacteria i.e. blue-green algae
  2. Protista
    - Diatoms and dinoflagellates
    - Protozoans
    - Plasmodiums
    - Slime mould
  3. Funghi
    - yeast
    - mushroom
    - penicillin
    - mucor-mycosis
  4. Plantae
    - Algae: Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
  5. Animalia
    - Non vertebrates (earthworm, mushrooms )and vertebrates (everything else)
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12
Q

What are phytoplanktons and why are they important?

A
  1. Phytoplanktons are acquatic photosynthetic organisms like diatoms and dinoflagellates and b/g algae that are primary producers
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13
Q

What is the light spectrum?

A
  1. Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red

2. Violent becomes UV due to an increase in Energy and Red becomes Infrared due to low energy

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14
Q

What are choloroflurocarbons and what is their impact?

A
  1. CFCs are used in ACs, fridges, rocket propellanta and plastic foaming processes
  2. Their release reacts with O3 to produce O2 and Oxygen Chloride that further release Chlorine in the stratosphere, acting as an Ozone depleting substance.
  3. Some fluorine gases are: perfluoro PFCs, carbons, hydrofluorocarbons HFCs, SF6 ie.e Sulfur hexafluoride.
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15
Q

Ozone depletion can result in greater UV ray penetration. What is the harmful impact of UV?

How is Ozone measured?

What is the relevance of the straosphere and the thermosphere?

A
  1. skin related issues, even cancer and the reduction in the rate of photosynthesis.
  2. Dobson units
  3. Stratosphere is a zone where jets fly and the thick ozone layer is present
  4. Thermosphere has a separate zone of free ions which is why an area is called the Ionosphere that helps in radio communications.
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16
Q

What is the range of light?

What is the relationship between energy, frequency and wavelength?

What rays make it to earth?

A
  1. The Sun emits in order of shortwave radiation to long wave radiation:

Gamma Rays -> X rays -> UV Rays (C, B, A) -> Visible Light -> Infrared Waves -> Microwaves -> Radio Waves

Shortwave radiations have high energy and a high frequency but a low wavelength

longwave radiations have a low energy and low frequency but a high wavelength

  • Gamma, X and UVc are completely absorbed or reflected by the upper layers of the atmosphere
  • 90% of UVb is absorbed by the Ozone layer and only 10% reaches the earth
  • The majority of UVa reaches the earth, although some is absorbed by the UV
  • Visible light used by plants for photosynthesis as photosynthetic active radiation.
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17
Q

What is the greenhouse effect and what are green house gases?

How is it linked to global warming?

A
  1. The GHE is a natural phenomena wherein outgoing terrestrial radiations are trapped by greenhouse gases, providing a warming impact in the lower atmosphere near the surface of the earth.
  2. GHE causes a blanketing impact on earth, maintaining its average temperature range of 15-18c making life possible on earth.

Eg. of GHGs: Water Vapours, C02, O3, CH4, Oxides of Nitrogen, fluorinated gases

  1. The increased emissions of GHGs = increased trapping of outgoing terrestrial radiation = greenhouse effect = increase in temp = global warming.
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18
Q

What is the largest man-made reservoir/lake in India?

A
  1. Goving Vallabh Pant Sagar / Rihand Damn built on Rihan River, which is a tributary of the Son, which is a tributary of the Ganga.
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19
Q

What are detritivores?

Does the 10% Lindemann’s Law apply to the Detritus food chain?

What is the process of decomposition?

A
  1. Detritivores are detritus feeding invertibrates such as earthworms, beetles, ants, sea cucumbers and termites.
  2. No, the 10% rule does not apply.
  3. It is the process of breaking down the detritus into organic derivatives like humus, and subsequently into inorganic minerals (N, P, K) and Gases (CO2 and H20 Vapour)
    STEPS: Fragmentation of detritus, leeching, catabolism, humification, mineralization.

Best condition for decomposition: high temperature and high soil moisture.

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20
Q

Primary Succession is driven by Xerarchs and Hydrarchs: what are they?

What is a Lichen?

A
  1. Xerarchs are the pioneer community consisting of lichen and mosses forming on rocks.
  2. Hydrarchs are primary successors such as phytoplanktons being the pioneer species and phyto+ zooplankton being the pioneer community.
  3. Lichen is a symbiotic association between algae and fungus.
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21
Q

What are local Indian terms for shifting cultivation?

A 
MP - Vevar and Deepa
Chattisgarh- Oipa
Orissa - Kaman and Dhavi
Andhra Pradesh- Podu
Mexico- Comile
Sri lanka- Chena
Vietnam - Ray
Central America - Milya
Karnataka - Kumari
Kerala - Kumari
Indonesia - Ladang and Humah
Malaysia - Ladang
Brazil - Roka
North East States - Jhum
Venezuela - Konuko
Central Africa - Fang
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22
Q

What are the different categories of plants in the plantae kingdom?

A
  1. Algae - Red, Green, Brown, Spirogyro
  2. Bryophytes - amphibious in plant kingdom, require water for reproduction, live in moist and shady conditions. i.e. mosses
  3. Pteridophytes - 1st plants with a xylem and phloem (vascular). Medicinal and decorative plants.
  4. Gymnosperms - plants with naked seeds i.e pine tree. Non flowering usually.
  5. Angiosperms - covered seeds and flowering plants.
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23
Q

What is the difference between ecological adaptations and acclimatization?

A
  1. Acclimatization are short-term adjustments/temporary changes taking place in the structure and functioning of plants and animals in response to new climatic conditions. Usually by producing melanin in the body, production of more RBCs when at altitutde.
  2. Adaptations are permanent changes in the structure and functioning.
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24
Q

What are the different kinds of adaptations in plants?

A
  1. Xerophytic - plants found in arid and semi-arid. Adapted for heat and low rainfall. Deep roots.
  2. Halophytes - plants in salty conditions. Contrary to normal, it has positively geotrophic branches and negatively geotrophic roots (pneumatophores) to help in the exchange of gasses. Also experiences vivipary which is germination when still attached to parent plant. eg. Mangroves.
  3. Heliophytes - plants that are sun adapted i.e. sunflower
  4. Sciophytes - plants are shade tolerant i.e. creepers
  5. Oligotrophic adaptation - organisms such as lichens and mycorhizza survive in ecosystmes that lack necessary conditions for life.
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25
Q

What is the difference between Lichens and Mycrorhizza?

A
  1. Lichens are a symbiotic association between an alga and a fungus. The alga prepares food for providing nutrition and the fungus provides shelter.
  2. Mycorhizza is a symbiotic association between fungus and the roots of higher plants i.e. gymnosperms and angiosperms. The fungus helps in absorbtion of h20 and minerals and gets food in return.
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26
Q

What is a hydrophitic adaptation?

A
  1. It is a plant adaptation in water conditions. Plants can be submerged, floating or rooted.

Usually found in the key zones:

Littoral Zone -> Limnetic Zone -> Profundal Zone -> Benthic Zone

They have a waxy body to repel extra water and require upthrust and buoyancy for flotation that is often providen by aerenchyma i.e. air filled tissues in the spaces of hydrophyte leaves.

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27
Q

What are the strategic adaptations in animals?

A
  1. Migration
    - takes place through land, air and water.
    - birds are important i.e. amur falcon, arctic term, flamingoes
  2. Hibernation (Winter Sleep)
    - reduced metabolism and activity due to which organism becomes dormant for cold periods.
  3. Aestivation (Summer Sleep)
    - Same but for summer i.e. bats, snakes, squirrels.
  4. Camouflage
    - cryptic or false appearance to avoid predators or to catch prey
  5. Echolocation
    - Use of soundwaves to locate objects and animals i.e. dolphins and bats
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28
Q

What are some important India related nesting sites for Siberian Cranes ?

A
  1. Harike Wetland in Punjab - Largest wetland in North India
  2. Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary in Rajasthan
  3. Chilika Lake - Odisha - asia’s largest and world’s 2nd largest lagoon/estuary. 1st wetland of international importance under Ramsar Convention. Has Irrawandy Dolphins.
  4. Pulicat Lake - Andhra and TN - annual flamingo festival
  5. Nalsarovar - Gujarat - Largest natural wetland (it is a freshwater lake) in Thar desert biogeographic province.
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29
Q

What are some examples of symbiosis?

A
  1. Lichens - Funghi + Alga
  2. Mycorhizza - Funghi + Roots
  3. N2 Fixation - bacteria present in root system of leguminous plants fix the atmospheric N2 to convert it into compounds like ammonium ions, nitrates and nitrates which can be captured by plants for generation of biomass as the plants cannot absorb elemental N2 from the air.

Examples of bacteria: Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum
Examples of cyanobacteria: Nostal, Annebena, Aulosira, Oscillatoria. Act as biofertilizers.

  1. Pollination
  2. Chorals
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30
Q

What are the different forms of pollination?

Any governing bodies focused on this?

A
  1. Self-pollination - phenomena associated with bisexual flowers like mustard where male and female parts are located on the same flower
  2. Cross Pollination
    a) Geitonogamy - male and female parts of two different flowers located on the same plant. Can take place between two different species but they should be genetically similar.
    b) different flowers of different plants

Decline in the population of pollinating agents such as birds, bees, bats etc. can significantly hamper food production as well as ecosystem functioning.

IPBES - Intergovernmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service came out with a report on population of pollinators in the wild and found that it was declining in the Americas.

India set up a I-LTEO India Long Term Ecological Observatory to have continous vigilance of which pollination is important.

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31
Q

What are corals?

What is their relevance?

Where are they found?

What is the coral triangle?

A
  1. It is a symbiotic association between Coral Polyps (an animal that is an invertibrate of the Coelentrate category aka CNIDARIA that provide the skeleton) and Algae (a specific type called Zooxanthellae i.e. red, green or brown).
  2. Corals give shelter to millions of aquatic organisms and are called the rainforests of the sea.
  3. Corals are found in shallow conditions, in greater salinity and in warm tropical waters or in open ocean regions free from sediments.
  4. Pacific Ocean = between Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia
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32
Q

What are the most prominent coral reefs in the world? and in India?

A
  1. Great Barrief Reef - NE Australia
  2. Apo Reef - Philippines
  3. Carribean Islands
  4. Chagos - Maldives, Laccadives
  5. Florida Keys
  6. Lakshadweep - Andaman - Gulf of Mannar
  7. Gulf of Kutch (artifical coral reefs)
  8. Nethrani Islands- Malvan coast of Maharashtra
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33
Q

What are the types of coral reefs?

A
  1. Fringing reefs
  2. Barrier Reefs
  3. Atolls
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34
Q

What are the important biome categories?

A
  1. Grasslands/Range lands
    - Tropical
    - Temperate
  2. Wetlands
    - Lakes, Rivers, Seas etc.
    - Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
  3. Forests
    - Tropical Rainforests/Evergreen Forests
    - Tropical Decidious Forests/Monsoon Forests
    - Thorny Forests - Ari and Semi Arid
    - Mangrove Forests - Littoral/Swampy Forests
    - Montane - Himalayan and Southern
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35
Q

Grasslands

Where are tropical grasslands found?
Where are temperate grasslands found?
What is their importance? Challenges?

A
  1. Found in the tropical regions between tropic of cancer and capricorn in the northern and southern hemisphere.
  2. Temperate grasslands are found in colder regions between the tropic of cancer and arctic circle in the northern and tropic of capricorn and antarctic circle in the southern hempishere.

They are important for their vegetation, agriculture, transhumance/seasonal migrations, flora and fauna. They are susceptible to overgrazing and forest fires given the scarcity of water, and contribute immensely to soil erosion prevention due to their branched root networks.

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36
Q

Important Grasslands in the World

A

Tropical:

  • African Savannah - Sub-Saharan Africa
  • Campos/Cerrados/Latingas aka Brazilian Savannah - Famous for coffee
  • Llanos in Venezuela - famous for orinco river basin
  • Rangelands of Northern Territory and Queensland aka Australian Savannah - rich deposits of minerals found here.

Temperate:

  • Downs Grasslands - Australia
  • Pampas - Argentina and Uruguay
  • Prairies - US and Canada
  • Steppes - Eurasia
  • Velds/Veldts - South Africa
  • Canterbury - NZ
  • Pustaz - Hungary
  • Manchurian Grasslands - China
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37
Q

Important grasslands in India

A

Tropical

  • Banni Grasslands - Guj - largest grassland of Asia
  • Shola (Temperate as well) - TN/Kerala/Ktka -due to elevation has temperate style vegetation as well
  • Terai - foothills of himalayas i.e. Shivaliks - features the transhumance migration of lepchas, bhotias, gujjars and bakharwals
  • Indian Savannah
  • Munnar Grasslands - famous for Neelakurinji every 12 years

Temperate

  • Shola
  • Khajjiar - Switzerland of India
  • Bugyals
  • Ranikhet
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38
Q

Wetlands
Categorization
Importance
Challenges

A
  1. Wetlands are low lying areas of land filled with shallow water that can have static/moving water conditions. Can be permanent/temp, fresh, salty or brakcishwater.
  2. Importance
    - They prevent floods by holding extra water
    - Act as important carbon sinks by sequestering carbon
    - Help recharge groundwater and aquifiers
    - Help hold sediments that help cleanse water i.e. mangroves
    - Reduce natural disaster impact
    - Have economic and social importance i.e. irrigation, nesting sites for birds, fishing, salt production, tourism etc.
  3. Problems faced: overusage of resources, industrial discharge of sewage water and oil spills.
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39
Q

Important wetlands in the world

A
  1. Great Lakes W-E (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Ontario, Erie). Superior is the largest freshwater lake by volume. GL is the largest inland water transport system.
  2. Lake Victoria - Largest freshwater lake of Africa b/w Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda
  3. Lake Tanganyika - Longest freshwater lake in the world.
  4. Lago Titicaca - In Andes Mountain System between Bolivia and Peru
  5. Lake Nyasa - Malawai, Tanzania and Mozambique.
  6. Lake Baikal - deepest freshwater lake in the world with neutrino observatory.
  7. Aral Sea - More than 80% of Aral sea is lost because of diversions of rivers feeding the Aral
  8. Dead Sea - one of the most saline water bodies
  9. Lake Van Von
  10. Sea of Gallilea/Lake of Kinneret - only freshwater lake of israel that is fed by underwater springs and river jordan
40
Q

Important Wetlands in India

A
  1. India has 46 Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance with a Max of 8 in Up.

Largest: Sundarbans

Latest additions:

  • Tsokar Wetland Complex (Ladakh)
  • Bhindawas Wetlands (Haryana)
  • Sultanpur national Park (Haryana) - Smallets
  • Thol Lake (Gujarat)
  • Wadawan Sancutary (Gujarat)
41
Q

What are the Ramsar Conventions on Wetland Conservation?

Are they legally binding?

Who are the private partners for Ramsar?

How many Ramsar wetlands in the world?

Any important additional instruments?

A
  1. It is an intergovernmental effort to maintain the character of wetlands across the world through national action and international cooperation. It is NOT legally binding.
  2. IUCN, WWF, Wetlands International, WWT, IWMI, Birdlife International are the 6 private NGOs.
  3. More than 2400 in the world with the max no. in UK and max area in Bolivia.
  4. The Montreux record under Ramsar includes a list of Wetlands where changes in ecological character have already occured/are occuring in present/may occur in the future. Chilika, Loktak and Keoladev Ghana were part of this but Chilika has been removed.
42
Q

What are forests?

Is there an official definition for forests in India?

Are their laws governing them?

Important organizations?

A
  1. There is no official definition of forests in India
  2. Forest and wildlife is mentioned in the concurrent list of Indian Constitution after the 42nd CAA in 1976 and earlier it was just on the State list.
  3. 1927 India Forest Act (still valid). 1960 Prevention of Cruelties of Animals Act. 1972 Wildlife Protection Act. 1980 Forest Conversation Act. 1986 Environmental Protection Act. 2006 Forest Rights Act.
  4. The Forest Survey of India releases the Indian State of Forests Report every two years. The FSI is housed under the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (MoEFFC)
43
Q

Tropical Evergreen Forests/Rain forests

Characteristics
Important Forests
Challenges
Important Exports

A
  1. Tropical Evergreen Forests/Rainforests - there is no specific season for leaf fall. green throughout the year. Found in areas of high rainfall. Found near the equator.
  2. Andaman&Nicobar, Lakshwadeep, Windwar/Western Slope of Western Ghats, N/E Regions. Semi-evergreen vegetation found in Odisha, WB and TN.
  3. Prominent vegetation: rosewood, ebony, mahogany, cinchona, rubber
  4. Soils are not suitable for agriculture due to excessive rainfall that wash away top soil nutrients. Nutritional deficiency is compensated by a higher rate of decomposition. Stratification can be witnessed.
44
Q

Tropical Deciduous/Monsoon Forests

Character
Importance
Important Forests
Exports

A
  1. Nearly 62% of the total forest in India belongs to this type
  2. They experience a specific season of leaf fall and they flourish in the monsoon.
  3. Moist TDFs found on the eastern and leeward slopes of western ghats and eastern and windward side of eastern ghats. foothills of the himalayas, interior NE and Amarkantak region in MP.
  4. Dry TDFs found in most part of the countries except himalays, NE, Kerala. They shed leaves completely in the dry period and look like grasslands.
  5. Prominent Vegetation - Kusum, Sal, Teak, Bambu, Tendin, Sandalwood, Sheesham. TDFs are VERY commercially important.
45
Q

Tropical Thorny Forests/Semi-Arid Forests

Character
Importance
Challenges
Vegetation/Exports

A
  1. Areas where rainfall is less than 70 CM annually
  2. Found in the Western parts of Rajasthan with adjoining portions of Punjab and Haryana. As well as Central Deccan Plateau, Vidharbha region and adjacent parts of KA, Telengana and some parts of MP and Chattisgarh.
  3. Important vegetation: Cactus, Babool, Acacia, Date Palm, Khejri
  4. Root bridges form here in Meghalaya
46
Q

Littoral/Swampy Forests i.e. Mangrove Forests

Character
Importance
Challenges
Vegetation

A
  1. Present throughout coastlines of India from GJ-WB-Andaman&Nic-Lakshadweep
  2. Vegetation - Sundari, Rhizophora, Avicenia, Red Mangroves, Sonneretia, White Chippi, White Apple Mangroves.
  3. The sunderbans, bhitarkanika, coringa and pichavaram are prominent mangroves in India
47
Q

Himalayan Montane Forests - Hilly Areas

Important Vegetation?
What is Ecocline?
Any industries specifically relying on this region?

A
  1. Tropical moist deciduous vegetation can be found in Terai himalayas with a thick forest cover
  2. temperate vegetation can be found at heights of 1500m which is replaced with a coniferous forest and vegetation at heights of 2500-3000m.
  3. Alpine pastures found at 3500-4000m like Bhogyals and Khajjiar
  4. Tundra/Arctic vegetation found at heights above 4500m. Especially lichens and moss.
  5. Gradual change in vegetation and forest type associated with change in Fauna is termed as Ecocline

Prominent Vegetation: Pine Tree, Chir, Spruce, Silver Fir, Juniper, Apple, Maple, Rhododendron, Chilgozal, Oak.

For India the most important vegetation are the Brahmakamal and Kuth - scented flowers that are the backbone of perfume industry and Himalayan Nettle which is an important fibre in UTK.

48
Q

Southern Montane Forests

A
  1. Associated with the Southern Western Ghats and also found in the Nilgiri Region i.e. Shola forests.
  2. Prominent Vegetation - Rubber, Silicona, Oak, Pinetrees
  3. Shola forests are challenges by the existence of invasive species i.e. tea plantation, senna spectabilis, lantana, prosopis juliflora, eucalyptus.
49
Q

What are the categories of community and ecosystem biodiversity?

What are the challenges to biodiversity? What are the Evil Quartets of Biodiversity?

A
  1. Alpha: diversity within an ecosystem
  2. Beta: diversity between two different communities and ecosystems
  3. Gamma: diversity in the context of the larger region having multiple communities and ecosystems.

Main Threats:

  1. Habitat loss and fragmentation
  2. Over-exploitation of natural resources
  3. Invasive Species
  4. Co-Extinctions (depedent species going extinct)
  5. Climate Change and pollution.
    * First 4 are termed “evil quartets”
50
Q

What are some of the Biodiversity Hotspots in the World and India

A

Hotspots in world

  • Caribbean islands
  • Coastal forests of Eastern Africa
  • Tropical Andes
  • Mountains of Central Asia
  • Mountains of S-W China
  • Mediterranean basin of Europe - Madagascar and Indian Ocean
  • Himalayas
  • Sundaland of Indonesia
  • Cerrados of Brazil

Hotspots in India

  • Eastern Himalayas - Indo+Burma
  • Western Ghats of Indo Srilanka
  • Nicobar Islands- Extension of Sundaland of Indonesia.
51
Q

What is a biodiversity hopespot?

What are the founding organizations?

What is the goal?

Does India have any?

A
  1. Concept given by MISSION BLUE and later adopted by IUCN
    - Goal of hopespot campaign is to raise public awareness and to gain the attention of governments to ultimately protect at least 20% of the world oceans by 2020 (now 2021) by designating them as hopespot

These are ecologically unique areas of oceans which are designated for protection. They have:

  • Significant wild life
  • Underwater forest ecosystems
  • Destinations for migratory species-
  • Potential for carbon sequestration i.e kelp forests

There are

  • 76 recognised hopespots in world.
  • Andaman and Nicobar both got the status of Biodiversity hope spots
52
Q

What is the IUCN red-list?

What are the categories?

What is included?

A
  1. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) launched a catalogue on the global conservation status of wildlife.
  2. Based on the red list, countries plan their conservation efforts. The list also includes a Wildplants green list conversation status.
  3. The document also provides information about certain treaties and agreements working towards biodiversity conservation such as UNCBD-CITES
  4. There are 9 different IUCN Red List categories: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern, Data Deficient, Not evaluated.
53
Q

What are the “Threatened Categories”?

A
  1. Critically endangered
    - 70-90% of natural population is lost in the previous decades. Risk of extinction in 10yrs.
    - eg. indian vultures, siberian cranes, namdapha flying squirrels, javan rhino, great indian bustard, malabar civet, asian cheetah (iran), north river terrapin
  2. Endangered
    - 50-70% of natural pop at risk. in 20-25yrs.
    - eg. gangetic dolphin, elephant, tiger, red panda, sangat deer, nilgiri tahr, wild buffalo, indian wild dog, indian wild ass, lion tailed macaque.
  3. Vulnerable
    - 30-50% loss and less than 30yrs timeline
    - eg. 1 horn rhino, olive-ridley turtles, indian hornbills, snow leopard, cheetah, sea cow(dugong).
54
Q

What are the two key methods of biodiversity conservation?

What is their difference in focus?

Any famous In-Situ spots in India?

A
  1. Ex-Situ Method
    - Protection and conservation of biodiversity outside its natural habitat
    - i.e. zoological parks, botanical gardens, seed banks, DNA/Gene Banks, Captive breeding like Zoos
  2. In-Situ Method
    - Protection within natural habitat
    - i.e. national parks, wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserves, community and conservation reserves, sacred lake/groves/forests, marine protected area (MPA)
  3. The LACONES dna bank in Hyderabad conserves genes of endangered wildlife. There is also the 1st halophytic garden of the world in TN and the 1st blood bank for cattle in Odisha.
55
Q

What is a Biosphere reserve?

How did it come to exist?

What defines one?

Does India have any important ones?

Are they designated under any act of parliament?

Who designates them?

Can a biosphere reserve have other protect areas within it?

A
  1. The designation of “Biosphere Reserve” was the result of a UNESCO MAB programme with the objectives of biodiversity conservation, preservation of folklore, scientific research and educational activities
  2. There are 18 biosphere reserves in India with the Nilgiris being the 1st one in 1986 and the Panna in 2011.
  3. 12 of the 18 are under the UNESCO world biosphere networks and some important ones are: Great Nicobar, Agastayamalai, Kanchendzonga and Panna.
  4. Biosphere reserves are not designated under acts of the parliament and are designated by the central government and states can request for the same.
  5. A biosphere can be a larger area that has, within its limits, other protected areas such as NPs, WS etc.
  6. Cold desert Biosphere Reserve has, Pin Valley, Sarchu WS, Kribber WS and Chandratal Lake.
56
Q

What is the structure of a biosphere reserve?

What differentiates them?

A
  1. Core Zone: the center most zone where no interference is allowed
  2. Buffer zone: the zone slightly outside that allows for scientific research, eco tourism, education and demonstrations
  3. Transition zone: rural settlements, agriculture and minor forest produce allowed
57
Q

What is the difference between a national park and wildlife sanctuary?

How many in India?

Centre or States?

A
  1. NPs and Ws are both designated under the WPA, 1972 and are designated under areas of natural significance, ecological significance, economic significance, biological significance and geomorphic significance.
  2. However, an NP doesn’t allow the activities such as grazing, cropping, logging, fishing that a WS allows. NPs are the most protected and there are a 106 in India after Raimona and Dehing Patkai being added.
  3. There are 544 WLS in India and a WS CAN be designated to protect a single species whereas an NP cannot be.
  4. Everything from the declaration to management is taken care of by the State Government. An NP cannot be downgraded but a WS can be upgraded. The permission for a project within/or nearby to a protect area can be given only by the National Board for Wildlife, a stat body under the WPA, 1972.
58
Q

What are community reserves?

What are conservation reserves?

What are sacred lake/groves/foests?

MPAs?

A
  1. A community reserve is designated under WPA 1972 by the state government and tend to be areas around NPs and WS, generally connected through corridors. Community reserves can be privately owned.
  2. Conservation reserve are owned by the government, panchayat, ULBs or the State Gov and are designated to protect certain species.
  3. Sacred L/G/F are not under act of parliaments but are one of the most undisturbed ecosystems of the country. These protect areas that the local community holds with religious value. Eg. Khecheopalri Lake, Sikkim. Sarnas of Chota Nagpur Pkateau and Devras of Western Ghats.
  4. Marine Protected Area (MPAs) are protected area networks in coastral and marine ecosystems. They are designated areas which are confined to marine ecosystems eg: Marine NP, WS, Biosphere Reserve, Marine Tiger Reserve
59
Q

What are India’s efforts with related to Tiger conservation?

What are the important regions?

How many tigers?

What are the nodal agencies and important tracking systems?

Are Cheetahs managed by a similar nodal agency?

A
  1. There are 2967 tigers in India, making us 75% of the world tiger pop.
  2. Project Tiger is the Central gov’s Centrally Sponsored Scheme (funded by centre but implemented by States) that was started in 1873 with 9 tiger reserves. We now have 52 tiger reserves as Kamlang, Meghamalai, Ramgarh Visdhari WLS were the 50-52nd.
  3. The National Tiger Conservation Agency (NTCA) is the Nodal Agency for project tiget which lays down guidelines for overall management of tiger and tiger reserves regarding housing, upkeeping, healthcare, diet etc.
  4. It approves the tiger conservation plans prepared by state governments along with helping conduct the census. It is a stat body under WPA 1972.
  5. M-Stripes was a monitoring system launched for intensive protection and tracking of ecological status. Used for the census.
  6. Cheetah and lion are also managed by the NTCA
60
Q

What are the key features of Project Elephant?

Are there elephant reserves?

What are its objectives?

What about Project Rhino, what are its characteristics?

A
  1. Elephants are endangered species and project elephant was another centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1992.
  2. It focuses on the conservation of elephants, avoiding man-animal conflict, and care of captivated elephants.
  3. There are 32 elephant reserves in India that are divided into 10 elephant landscapes.
  4. CITES runs the MIKE programme to control the killing of elephants.
  5. To avoid man-animal conflicts, the North Eastern Frontier Railways introduced PLAN BEE.
  6. Project Rhino was introduced by the Govermnet of Assam in partnership with the WWF-Bodoland autonomous council with a 2020 vision.
    - Objective is to increase pop of vulnerable Rhinos from 2000 to 3000 by 2020.
    - Max rhinos found in Kazi and are hunted for horn.
61
Q

What are the important Indian regulations regarding wildlife, forests and environmental protection?

A
  1. WPA 1972 : Under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
  2. Environmental Protection Act, 1986 : Under MOEFCC
  3. Biological Diversity Act, 2002 : Under MOEFCC
  4. Forest Rights Act, 2006: Ministry of Tribal Affairs
  5. National Green Tribunal Act (NGTA) 2010 : Not bound by IPC-CrPC
62
Q

WPA 1972

Features
Salient Points

A
  1. It is the most comprehensive legislation for the protection and management of wildlife in India
  2. WPA fulfills India’s commitments made under CITES
  3. Hunting rights of A&N tribal communities are safeguarded by WPA
  4. The WPA has 6 schedules ranging from 1 (the most prominent wild animals, i.e. highest punishment) to 5 (lowest punishment and generally considered vermins) and 6(wild plants)

How can someone declare an animal a vermin? The State has to request the Centre.

  1. Wild Plant schedule includes plants that can create an imbalance in the ecosystem if traded w/o permissions.

The Stat bodies under the WPA are: the National Tiger Conservation Association, The National Board for Wildlife, Wildlife Crime Control Bureau and the Central Zoos Authority.

63
Q

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

Origin
Salient Points
Links to Intll Treaties
What important rules and regulations formed under it?
What STAT bodies?
A
  1. The Stockholm Conference 1972 was the UN conference on Human Environment that resulted in the formation of the UN Environmental Program and the EPA in India.
  2. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy was the immediate cause for the formulation of the EPA in 1986 as it was formulated to fulfill India’s committments under the UNCHE 1972.
  3. The Law became the umbrella legislation for taking care of the environment and focused on the max permissible limits of various poulltants, namely AIR, WATER, NOISE

4, For the 1st time the government got the powers to conduct an environmental audit i.e. raiding an industry or operation to check the complaints.

The following were the rules formed through it:

  • EIA Rules
  • Waste Management Rules (Hazardous, Municipal Solid, Bio Medical, E, Plastic)
  • Eco-Sensitive Area
  • CRZ Area
  • Coastal Regulation Zone

Stat Bodies : GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisals Committee), NCZMA ( National Coastal Zone Management Authority) and CGWB (Central Ground Water Board - Ministry of Jal Shakti)``

64
Q 
Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Origin
Salient Points
Links to Intll Treaties
What important rules and regulations formed under it?
What STAT bodies?
A
  1. The 1992 Earth Summit in RIO was the UN Conference on Environment and Development that resulted in the Rio declaration.
  2. The Rio Declaration gave power to three legally binding instruments: the UNFCCC (Framework Convention on CC), UNCCD (Convention to combat Desertification), UNCBD (Convention on biological diversity)
  3. The UNCBD focuses on conservation, sustainable use of components and fair and equitable distribution.
  4. To Fulfill UNCBD commitments, India came up with 3 tiered structure of the National Biodiversity Authority, State Biodiversity Boards and Local Body Biodiversity Committees.
65
Q 
Forest Rights Act 2006
Origin
Salient Points
Links to Intll Treaties
What important rules and regulations formed under it?
What STAT bodies?
A
  1. The actual name of the Act is the Schedule Tribes and Traditional Forest Dwellers Recognition of Rights Act, 2006.
  2. It is under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
  3. FRA is for the restitution of the deprived forest rights of individuals as well as Gram Sabhas.
  4. It is a tool that promotes local self government, allowance to conserve by traditional mechanisms and recognizes the livelihood rights of tribals and forest dwellers.
  5. The focus of the FRA is on Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (75 recognized) such as Dongria Kondhs, Mankidia, Baigas, Irular, Colanaikkan
  6. Conditions for recognition?
    - 75 years presence in the forest
    - dependency on the resources
    - minimum 3 generations residing in the forest
66
Q 
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
Origin
Salient Points
Links to Intll Treaties
What important rules and regulations formed under it?
What STAT bodies?
A
  1. It created the National Green Tribunal (an environmental court)
  2. Goal is to reduce pressure on higher judiciary regarding environmental cases. To speed up the cases. NGT can now take suo moto action as per 2021.
  3. Courts have to finish cases in 6 months and are not bound by the Indian Penal Code or the Criminal Procedure Code
67
Q 
Campa 2016
Origin
Salient Points
Links to Intll Treaties
What important rules and regulations formed under it?
What STAT bodies?
Calculations?
A
  1. It is the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority, 2016
  2. This concept was first highlighted in the Forest Conservation Act of 1980.
  3. The 2002 SC directed the central gov to come up with an organization that handles this and hence an Ad HOC Campa was created.
  4. CAMPA 2016 led to the formation of the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund that operates under the Public Account of India.
  5. State CA funds are under respective State Public Accounts
  6. Objective is to bring in a similar amount of land under green cover as is being diverted for non forestry purposes in nearby areas of the forest.
  7. If land nearby is not available, then DOUBLE the area of the diverted land must be maintained and reforested in degraded parts of the same forest.
  8. The Net Present Value of the diverted forest lands needs to be calculated, and to be deposited in the NCAF wherein 10% of the funds are retained by the centre and remaining given to the states where the money came from.

Eg: Funds received from a project in Manipur will be given to Manipur for Compensatory Afforestation.

68
Q

What did the 5th IPCC report say regarding global warming as a driver of climate change?

What did the Paris Peace Agreement say?

A
  1. As per the 5th Assessment of the IPCC, more than a 1C increase in temps has already taken place due to anthropocentric activities.
  2. As per the Paris Peace Agreement (COP 21 of the UNFCCC), the target is to restrict the increase in temperatures to well below 2C by the end of the 21st century as compared to pre-industrial levels (1850).
69
Q

What is global warming potential?

How is it different from GHG strength?

A
  1. GWP is a relative measure to have an idea about the potential of GHGs to contribute towards global warming.
  2. It is not an absolute measure and is defined in comparison to C02 which is taken as the benchmark of 1.
  3. EG. GWP of CO2 is 1, CH4 is 20, NOx is 300 and F-1000-24000, however CO2 still contributes to nearly 70% of global warming.
  4. Factors affecting GWP calculation: concentration of GHG, life span and the ability to trap heat
70
Q

What is the carbon footprint?

What is carbon handprint?

A
  1. It is the total emissions of GHGs directly or indirectly by a country or state, or group or institution or an individual/event
  2. It includes GHGs as well as consumption of goods and services in the host country.
  3. Carbon handprint is the steps taken by I, G, C to reduce and/or minimize their carbon footprint i.e. afforestation, clean flues, plantation drives. India and China have one of the best in the world.
71
Q

What is carbon sequestration?

What is zero-tillage farming?

What about geological sequestration?

A
  1. It is the process of capturing and storing C01 for long periods through oceans and forests which are the biggest carbon sinks as they convert C02 into organic compounds like glucose via photosynthesis
  2. Wetland soils are another important carbon sink as they don’t allow a rapid decomposition
  3. Zero tillage farming is better at retaining soil’s ability to sequester C02 as tilling breaks down the matter and causes C02 to release quickly into the air.
  4. geological sequestration is the storing of C02 below the ground by collecting it from the source and compressing/pumping it below the ground. CARBFIX project in Iceland is an example.
72
Q

What is Ozone depletion and what are the 3 main conventions that drive its prevention?

What are examples of ozone depleting substances?

A
  1. Ozone depletion is the reduction in the good ozone belt in the stratosphere i.e. a drop in dobson units due to Ozone depleting substances.
  2. ODS examples: CFCs, HFCs, CCL4 (chlorine derivatives), Bromine derivatives (Halons, Hydrobromofluoro carbons, CH2BR Methyl Bromide). NOX, Organic solvents.
  3. The Vienna Convention under the UN was the first convention that got universal ratification and its purpose was to protect the 03 layer by phasing out OSDs.
  4. Montral protocol was the next one that was made to implement the vienna convention and it listed 100 OSDs to be phased out i.e. CFC to be replaced with HFC and PFC.
  5. Kigali was the 3rd in the series that amended the Montreal Protocol to phase out chlorinated gases to minimise global warming.
73
Q

What are some key impacts of Climate Change?

A
  1. Increased temperatures leading to melting of ice in arctic & antarctic leading to rise in sea level and subsequent submergence of coastal areas. Inward migration and resource fight.
  2. Increased temperature, erratic rainfall, droughts, forest fires and reduction in agri production.
  3. Shorter duration of winters.
  4. Increased temps result in bacteria and zoonotic disease outbreak.
  5. Ocean is an important carbon sink and the extra CO2 entering the ocean makes the water acidic by combining with free water molecules and ocean acidification can impact entire marine, coral and plankton ecosystems.
  6. Species extinction and devastating economic losses.
74
Q

Map out the history of climate change governance?

What was the lead up to sustainable development being defined and acted upon?

A
  1. The pioneer conference was the UNCHE in Stockholm that gave birth to the UNEP and the EPA 1986 in India.
  2. This was followed by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report titled “Our Common Future” that mentioned sustainable development for the first time.
  3. In 1992, the UNCED also known as the Rio Summit/Earth Summit gave birth to the three important convetions, UNFCCC, UNCCD and UNCBD as well as Agenda 21 and the Global Environmental Facility
  4. In 2002 - Rio+10 also known as Earth Summit 2022 or JoBerg Summit was th efirst Summit on Sustainable Development
  5. In 2012, Rio+20 was Earth Summit 2012 and the Official UN Conference on Sustainable Development was held.
75
Q

2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development

2012 UNCSD

Objectives and Focus Areas

A
  1. WSSD 2002 - Focus on Millennium Development Goals and Reaffirm Agenda 21
  2. WCSD 2012
    - focused on green economy which led to the formation of Page = Partnership for Action on Green Economy
    - focused on sustainable development and led to the adoption of the SDGs
76
Q

What is the Global Environmental Facility?

Who is the custodian of the fund?

Under what initiatives can GEF sponsorship be availed?

A
  1. It is the biggest climate fund initiative in the world adopted at the earth summit 1992.
  2. The world bank group is the custodian of the fund
  3. The GEF can sponsor sustainable development and climate initiatives under 5 different conventions: UNCCD, UNCBD, UNFCCC, MINAMATA convention on Mercury and Stockholm Conference on persistent organic pollutants.
77
Q

What important India related events have taken place in relation to the legally binding 1992 UNCCD?

A
  1. Its conference of parties, COP, meets every 2 years and in 2019 it took place in India. The theme was to restore land and sustain the future.
  2. It resulted in the Delhi Declaration for maintenance of ecosytem, biodiversity, controlling desertification and gender parity.
  3. The peace forest initiative was also adopted by the UNCCD in Delhi as a way to increase green cover in disputed territories.
78
Q

What is the UNFCCC?

Was it always binding?

What was its core focus?

What is REDD? REDD+

A

The UN Framework Convention for Climate Change was not always binding but it had provisions that will be followed by legally binding protocols.

Its focus was on CBDR = Common But Differential Responsibilities i.e. to reduce GHG’s is the common responsibility of all countries but that developed countries have contributed to the most in the last 250yrs so they should bare the biggest burden.

Developing countries, as a result, are not bound to reduce emissions under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.

CBDR was further strengthened with CBDR-RC, i.e. to help countries reduce emissions through monetary support from developing and developed countries.

COP takes place every year.

REDD is reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

REDD+ includes incentives of monetary and technical support + recognition to the efforts at an international level for best forest management practices.

79
Q

What are additional funds, protocols and instruments to have come out of the Climate Change governance framework?

A
  1. The Adaptation fund was specifically made for developing countries to develop capacities and capacities to withstand CC negative impacts.
  2. The Green Climate Fund was set up at the COP 16 in Cancun 2010 to draw monetary support for the developing world to the tune of $100Billion dollars every year.
  3. Talanoa Dialogie was the COP 23 outcome where in a traditional dispute resolution mechanism was established for pacific islands to resolve disputes amicably. This mechanism was further extended to the UNFCCC.
  4. Chile Madrid time for Action was the outcome of COP 25 in madrid and was a call for a swift implementation of the Paris agreement.
80
Q 
Kyoto Protocol
Salient Points
Important Updations
Annexes
Commitment Periods
Mechanisms
A
  1. Fomulated in 1997 @ COP 3 using the principle of CBDR and then later CBDR RC.
  2. It was based on the 55:55 criteria where in the protocol would be considered ratified only when the 55 countries contributing to at least 55% of the GHG emissions sign the protocol.
  3. Two different commitment periods under Kyoto for the developed world.
  4. In 2001 @ COP 7 Marrakech Accords, the rules and regulations were simplified
  5. In 2005 @ Montreal the Kyoto Protocol was ratified
  6. In 2013 Bali there two different commitment periods were finalized i.e. 2008-2012, 2013-2017

Annexes:
Annex 1 has the 45 most developed countries in the world including 14 Economies in Transition i.e. erstwhile USSR other than Russia.
Annex 2 has the 24 OECD members that are highly developed
Annex B - List of countries legally bound to reduce emissions under period 1 (5% reduction as compared to 1990) and period 2 (18% reduction compared to 1990 level).
Non-Annexure - developing countries
LDCs- Poorest

Binding Commitments:

  1. No flexibility is providing on the level of emissions to be reduced by an Annex B country
  2. It is the bare minimum that Annex B must fulfill

Flexible Mechanism:
1. Joint implementation - b/w two industrialized annex B countries where one is sponsoring

  1. Clean Developing Mechanism - when a less emitting or non-emitting project is sponsored by an annex b country in an LDC.
  2. Carbon Market/Emissions Trading
    - Any annex B can reduce emissions more than its specified limits can earn carbon credits which can be sold and purchased in carbon markets. EU is the biggest carbon market in the world.
81
Q

What was the historic COP-21 Paris Agreement about?

What binding agreements?

What did the IPPC say?

What are INDCs?

A
  1. COP 21 in Paris was a legally binding agreement to all the signing countries to adhere by their post 2020 agenda and action plan.
  2. Target is to restrict the increase in temperatures to well below 2C by end of 21st century as compared to 1850/pre industrial levels
  3. 2C increase in the temperatures is the maximum limit and the world should continue the efforts to restrict these increases in temperatures to an increase of 1.5C
  4. IPPC 5th assessment report highlighted that with the present rate of emissions, the 1.5C increase in temp can be breached as early as 2030
  5. INDCs are Intended Nationally Determined Contributions that were finalized at COP21. These are voluntary targets by countries to reduce GHGs. India was the first country to reduce their GHG emissions.
82
Q

What are India’s INDCs?

A
  1. To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level.
  2. To achieve about 40 per cent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030, with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance, including from Green Climate Fund.
  3. To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
  4. To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development programmes in sectors vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions, health and disaster management.
  5. To mobilize domestic and new and additional funds from developed countries to implement the above mitigation and adaptation actions in view of the resource required and the resource gap.
  6. To build capacities, create domestic framework and international architecture for quick diffusion of cutting edge climate technology in India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.
83
Q

What is the International Solar Alliance?

Are all countries invited to be members?

A
  1. It was an alliance formed by India and backed by France at COP 21. It is an alliance of tropical and subtropical countries to tap solar energy through technological commitments, monetary collaborations, best practices and easy availability of raw materials and equipment.
  2. Earlier its membership was for tropical and subtropical countries having sufficient sunshine in almost 9 months of the year, but later membership was extended to all countries on recommendation of India.
84
Q

Pollution and its Control

What are primary pollutants and secondary pollutants?

List some of the prominent ones?

A
  1. Pollutants are the unwanted products released in the environment through natural and anthropogenic activities and are harmful to living beings and ecosystem functioning.
  2. Primary pollutants:
    - released directly to the environment
    - Carbon monoxide, particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide
  3. Secondary pollutants
    - formed through reactions between primary pollutants with neutral components of the environment
    - smog formed by combination of smoke and fog
    - acid rain formed when dilute acid is mixed with rain water
    - nitric acid formed when oxides of nitrogen and sulphur combine with H20 vapour

*black carbon/soot is the particle from of carbon that is a GHG

85
Q

What are the broad categories of pollution?

A
  1. Air
  2. Water
  3. Solid
  4. E-Waste
  5. Plastic
  6. Bio Medical Waste
86
Q

What are some of the main pollutants and what are their sources?

A
  1. NOx
    - over usage of nitrogenous chemicals in agriculture
    - nylon production
    - nitric acid production
    - thermal power plants
    - steel plants

SO2

  • vehicular emissions
  • thermal and steel plant
  • artificial rubber manufacturing

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
- formaldehyde, acetone, benzene, chroloform.

Particulate matter
- particle form of air pollutants i.e. aerosols, which can be solid particles or liquid droplets - Fly Ash, PM1, PM2.5, PM10 - particle form carbon.

  1. Fly ash/coal ash - waste powder which is an outcome of coal based thermal power plants. It is a mixture of various oxides like silica, alumniium, lead cadium etc. Can be seen in bricks.
  2. Maharashtra is the first state to have its fly ash utilisation policy
    - The central gov has also launched an ash track application
87
Q

What is the difference between smog and photochemical smog?

What steps taken by the government to prevent smog?

A
  1. Smog is smoke+fog and results in sulphurious oxide pollutant release
  2. It is characterised by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate matter
  3. It is termed as winter smog or sulphurous smog
  4. It was first witnessed in London, hence termed the London Smog.

Photochemical Smog (it is a misnomer)

  • It is formed due to eactions between 3 secondary pollutants = 02, N0X and peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN).
  • Nitrous smogs are found in areas with NOX pollutants and require intense solar raditation.
  • It is termed as LA or summer smog since first witnessed in LA.
  1. The government launched a Smog tower, the National Air Quality Index and WAYU(Wind Augmentation and Purification Units))
88
Q

What are the key sources of water pollution?

What are the risks?

Any international government traties on the matter?

What is eutrophication?

A
  1. It usually occurs due to discharge/sewage/dumping into water by oil/industry.
  2. Plastic waste can be dumped and overusage of chemicals reaching up to the water body can also pollute water.
  3. Over extraction of groundwater for irrigation and drinking purposes by creation of channels and artificial springs can lead to leaching down of harmful chemicals like mercury, cadmium, lead, arsenic that contaminate ground water leading to Minamata disease, itai itai disease or black foot disease.
  4. Minanamata convention was signed to stop this very disease from spreading through excess mercury dumping.
  5. Fertilizers, pesticides and weedicides are another big source of water pollution as the Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium found in DDT, BHC, Aldrine, Dialdrine,Endosulfan, Carbfuran etc. can bioaccumulate in humans and animals and result in blue baby syndrome and methemoglobinemia.
  6. Excessive nutrients can further mix with rain water and result in eutrophication that blocks the excahnge of gases and biodiversity death.
89
Q

Areas where soil pollution occurs?

A
  1. Dumping sites - municipal and domestic garbage dumping
  2. Chemical discharge
  3. Hospital waste
  4. Burn pits, e-waste, mining.
90
Q

What is the concept of dissolved 02 and biological oxygen demand (BOD)?

A
  1. Dissolved oxygen (D 02) found in dissolved forms in water bodies is utilised for decomposition and respiration.
  2. Greater pollution in the form of organic waste and sewage can increase the demand of 02 for the process of decomposition.
  3. The extra BOD can further be studied under Chemical Oxygen Demand or Biochemical Oxygen Deman.

Pollution = O2 demand = BOD = D02

91
Q

What counts as E-Waste?

What are the rules internationally and nationally regarding e-waste management?

A
  1. E-waste is the discarded, end of life electronic and electrical equipment such as home appliances, gadgets, batteries etc.
  2. It is not hazardous if properly stored and recycled scientifically.
  3. China, USA, EU, India, Japan - biggest e-waste contributors
  4. Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent, Chromium, Beryllium, Barium and Brominated Flame Retardents (BFRs) are the leading pollutants in e-waste. BFRs are volatile and can be inhaled by humans and animals leading to respiratory issues.
  5. The E-Waste Management Rules 2016 were formulated under the EPA 1986 provisions nationally and forwarded the concept of extended producer responsibility in India’s recycling market for proper recycling and scientific discard of e-waste.
92
Q

What about plastic waste?

What is the leading cause?

What are the key toxins?

Any important legislation?

A
  1. Non-biodegradable plastic is the biggest issue as more than 1000 years required for the decomposition of plastic waste
  2. The biggest challenges are faced by waterbodies and soil quality (abiotic factors) and animal life (biotic factors)
  3. Plastic waste can reach up to oceans and decompose into microplastic and microbeads as well as releasing the carcinogenic “DIOXINS”.
  4. <50 microns cannot be recycled.
  5. On the UN Environmental Assembly platform, India committed to phase out single use plastics by 2022 and plastic waste management rules 2016 was also formulated from the EPA 1986 provisions.
93
Q

What are the BRS Conventions on hazardous waste management?

What is the dirty dozen?

A
  1. B(Basel) Conventions: All forms of hazardous wastes are part of the Basel convention except radioactive waste.
  • The convention focuses on the trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste and its disposal
  • The waste producing country MUST inform the second country of the nature and potential impact of the waste and should seek written consent from destination country before dumping.
  1. R(Rotterdamn Conventions): Deals with the transboundary movement of hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade
    - Also follows the prior informed consent procedure for this transfer
  2. S(Stockholm Conventions): Delas with persistent organic pollutants
    - PoPs are derivatives of carbon compounds which remain in the environment for a longer period and cannot be degraded easily eg. DDT, Dialdrine, Aldrine and Endosulfan.
    - A list of 12 POPs were the initial point of the stockholm conventions and were codenamed the Dirty Dozen
    - Now There are 28 POPs and a triple COP was organized for BRS conventions in Basel.
94
Q

What is the history of the sustainable development?

What are the key SDGs?

A
  1. The world conservation strategy 1980, used the term Sustainable Development and it was defined by the Brundtland commission report in 1987 titled our common future.
  2. It focuses on the development that fulfills the demand of present generations without compromising future generations.
  3. It focuses on reaching the poorest sections of society and the poorest economies.
  4. 3 prongs: economic, social and environmental development.
  5. The UNDP came up with 17 goals to be achieved from 2016-2030
Environmental SDGs: 
6 = clean water and sanitation
7 = affordable and clean energy
11 = sustainable cities and comms
12 = responsible consumption and production
12 = climate action
14 = life blow water
15 = life on land
95
Q

What are environmental impact assessments (EIA)?

What are the two key categories?

A
  1. EIA is a tool to anticipate the likely environmental impacts of a proposed developmental project or activity.
  2. It will suggest mitigation measures and strategies
  3. It will deal with positive and negative impacts, including economic and cultural factors.
  4. EIAs reduce the chance of negative impacts and improve governance esp. local self-governance.
  5. EIA Category A: Projects getting clearance from central government after a necessary EIA study and public consultation
  6. EIA Category B: Projects clearance given by state governments wherenin B1 : a necessary EIA study and public consultation is needed and a B2 wherein the two are not needed
96
Q

What is climate smart agriculture?

A
  1. It is the effort to make agriculture resilient to changing climatic conditions. Further it is agriculture that does NOT contribute excessively to global warming and climate change
  2. It promotes:
    - organic farming (use of biofertilisers, biopesticides and promotes allelopathy). PMKVS
    - Soil less culture activities like hydroponics and aeroponics
    - Joint forest management (JFM)
    - precision irrigation and micro irrigation
    - zero budget natural farming
    - zero tillage farming (helps decomposition food chain)
    - crop rotation
    - inter cropping
97
Q

What are biofuels?

What vegetation used?

What are the generations of biofuel development?

A
  1. Biofuels come from “Biological Origins:
  2. They are derived from the remnants of living beings i.e. grass (alfa-alfa, jatropha), edible crops (soy bean, maize, sugarcane), non-edible crops (seaweed, algae).
  3. Biofuel Generations
    - 1st Gen: Based on food crops
    - 2nd Gen: Advanced biofuels based on non-food crops
    - 3rd Gen - Formed from modified forms of algare and seaweed, it involves biotechnology and is the best biofuel currently.
    - 4th Generation is in discussion.

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