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UPSC Prep > Ancient & Medieval India + Art & Culture > Flashcards

Ancient & Medieval India + Art & Culture Flashcards

1
Q

Palaeolithic Period

A

2 million BC – 10,000 BC

  1. Important Palaeolithic sites are Kaladgi Basin, Bhimbetka, Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves and Narmada Valley,
  2. Tools made up of limestone
  3. Fire was discovered
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2
Q

Mesolithic Period

A

10,000 BC – 8,000 BC

  1. Microliths were found at Brahmagiri, Narmada and Gujarat
  2. Domestication of animals and Cattle rearing were started in this period
  3. Significant climatic change happened
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3
Q

Neolithic Period

A

8000 BC – 2000 BC

  1. Wheel discovered and agriculture was started in this period
  2. Inamgaon is an early Neolithic village
  3. The major megalithic Sites are Brahmagiri and Adichanallur
4. Important Neolithic Sites:
        Hallur (Andhra Pradesh)
        Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh)
        Maski
        Paiyampalli (Andhra Pradesh)
        Sangana Kaller
        Utnur
        Burzahom (Kashmir)
        Chirand (Bihar)
        Daojali Hading (Tripura and Assam)
        Gufkral (Kashmir)
        Kodekal
        Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh)
        Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
        Takkala Kota
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4
Q

Indus Valley Civilization + Harrappans

A

2000 BCE - 1700BCE

  1. Bronze age society
  2. Through excavation know they used bronze, copper and tin (BUT NOT Iron)
  3. Harappans were excellent city planners who placed a priority on hygiene
  4. Cities followed a grid system and there was a remarkable use of burnt bricks.
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5
Q

What are some famous Harappan excavation sites? What rivers are they close to?

A
  1. Harappa - Ravi
  2. Mohenjodaro - Indus (where the bronze dancing girl was unearthed)
  3. Sutkagendor - Indus
  4. Chanhudaro - Indus
  5. Kalibangan - Ghaggar
  6. Kot Diji - Indus
  7. Lothal - Bhogava (first man made port)
  8. Dholavira - largest harrappan inscription
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6
Q

What are key IVC social, economic and political features?

A
  1. Granaries are found at various sites hinting at considerable trade in stone, metal, shell.
  2. They did not use metal money.
  3. They carried on long-distance trade in lapis lazuli.
  4. There are indications of furrows i.e. ploughing and key grains were what, barley, ragi, peas.
  5. IVC was earliest to produce cotton, hence the greek name Sindon i.e. Sindh.
  6. Looked upon earth as fertility goddess
  7. Male deity is identified as Pashupati. Pipal tree also worshipped.
    8, IVC ended by 1800BCE and reason is disputed namely Saraswati river drying up vs. civic order collapse
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7
Q

What are the key characteristics and features of the Aryans -> Early Vedic Period

A

1800 BCE onwards

  1. They came in as nomadic cattle-herders. Invasion theory has been debunked.
  2. A new culture flourished and spread across Ganga-Yauma plains. Aryans settled on the banks of Indus and Saraswati
  3. Culture driven by 4 Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharvana
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8
Q

Important points about the Rig Veda

A
  1. Consists of 10 mandalas and 1028 suktas
  2. Collecttion of prayers offered to Indra, Agni, Mitra and Varuna
  3. The 3rd mandala consists of the Gayatri mantra
  4. Mentions female goddesses such as Usha, Aditi, Surya and Laxmi.
  5. Brahma not mentioned and Shiva mentioned as Rudra.
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9
Q

Important points about Sama Veda

A
  1. It is an extension to the Rigveda with 75 new suktas
  2. It is considered the oldest text on Indian music
  3. Contains hymns to the sun god
  4. It talks about the appearance and disappearance of the Saraswati river
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10
Q

Important points about the Yajurveda

A
  1. It contains key yagya/rituals related suktas
  2. Rice is mentioned as Vrihi in the text
  3. It talks about Shunya
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11
Q

Important points about Atharvaveda

A
  1. It consists of charms and spells to ward of diseases
  2. It is known as Brahmaveda
  3. Brahma considered highest of all four vedic priests
  4. It mentions the vedic assemblies of Sabha and Samiti
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12
Q

Key Early Vedic Society

A
  1. They worshiped forces of nature and personified them as gods and goddesses
  2. Varuna is the enforcer as well as the upholder of law
  3. Family was the smallest unit, and several families (kula) made a village (grama) and several villages formed a (vis). Many villages formed a tribe or jana and this was ruled by the Rajan.
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13
Q

Later Vedic Period

  1. How did it change?
  2. Any key differences in agriculture, society etc.?
A
  1. LVP coincides with the painted grey ware sites. The later VP people were acquainted with 4 types of pottery - black and red ware, black slopped ware, painted grey ware and red ware.
  2. They continued to produce barley but rice and wheat became key
  3. Tribal assemblies lost importance and royal power increased
  4. 4-fold varna classification increased
  5. Pardah and Sati not prevalent
  6. Castes increased and was crystallized between 500BC to 400AD.
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14
Q

What are the salient features of Buddhism?

A
  1. It is a heterodox religion
  2. Gautama Buddga was born in Lumbini village in 563BC
  3. He died near Kushinara in 483BC
  4. Mahabhiraskramana is the event when Buddha left home to attain Sanyas
  5. His first sermon was the Dharmachakrapravartana
  6. He made Maghda his promotional center.
  7. 8 signficiant places associated with Buddha are:
    - Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar, Shravasti, Sankissa, Rajgriha, Vaishali
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15
Q

Who were contemporary rulers and later rulers that followed Buddhism?

A
  1. Ajatshatru - Maghda kingdom
  2. Prasenjit - Koshala
  3. Udayan - Vatsa
  4. Avanti Putra - Shurasena

Later rules

  1. Ashoka, Kanishka, Harshvardhana and Pala rules. Gautami was the first woman to enter Buddhist Sanga.
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16
Q

Religious features of Buddhism?

A
  1. Based upon triratnas i.e. Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
  2. Against caste
  3. Women allowed
  4. Birth symbolized by Lotus & Bull, Sanyas by Horse, Sermon by Bodhi Tree/Wheel and Death by Stupa
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17
Q

What are the schools of thought within Buddhism?

What are their salient features?

A
  1. Hinayana School
    - saw buddha as a great soul but not god. It was orthodox and didn’t believe in bhakti or idol worship
    - key subsects - Staviravadin/Thervadins (original form), Mahasanghika, Sammitya (believes in Atman).
  2. Mahayana School
    - prime center is Andra Pradesh
    - Mahayana places an important role in Bodhisattvas (who delay salvation to help others)
    - Mahayana belieeves in Buddha as incarnation of god
    - Believes in transmigration of soul and rebirth
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18
Q

Who are some of the important Chinese travelers that documented India?

A
  1. Fa-Hien - he visited India during the reign of Chandragupta during 399-414AD
  2. Huan Tsang - he visited during Harsha’s reign and studied in Nalanda university.
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19
Q

What is the history of Jainism?
What are the key features of Jainism?
Who are the founders?

A
  1. Jainism believes in the existence of 24 tirthankaras
  2. Mahavira, the founder, is referred as Nigantha Nataputta i.e. free from bonds
  3. They believed in right faith, right action, and right character
  4. Silent on caste system

Important followers and rules

  1. Bimbisara, Ajatshatru - Maghda
  2. Udyana - Vatsa
  3. Pradyot - SAvanti
  4. Kharvela - Kalinga
  5. Rashtrakuta Amoghvarsha
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20
Q

What are the key schools of throught within Jainism?

A
  1. Svetambar
    - Associated with thee region of Magadha
  2. Digambar
    - Associated with the region of Karnataka
    - Known to not wear clothes
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21
Q

What is Bhagavatism?

A
  1. It was contemporary to Buddhism and Jainism and owes its origins to the ideas contained in the Upanishads
  2. The Gupta rulers provided patronage to the Bhagavatism school that resulted in many temples being created and they primarily worshipped Vishnu
  3. The Puranas were compiled in this time period
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22
Q

Who are the Mahajanpadas?
What were their capital cities?
Any salient features?

A
  1. Anga (Bihar) - Champa
  2. Magadha - Giriraj/Rajgir (most important and powerful dynasty in Magadha was the Haryanka dynasty. Bimbisara was a contemporary follower of the Buddga0
  3. Kashi - Varanashi
  4. Vatsa - Kausambi (king - Udyana)
  5. Vajji
  6. Koushala - Shravasti
  7. Avanti - Ujjain
  8. Malla - Kusavati
  9. Panchala - Kampilya
  10. Chedi - Sukimati
  11. Kurus - Indraprashta
  12. Matsya - Viratnagara
  13. Kamboja - Rajapura
  14. Surasena - Mathura
  15. Ashmaka - Potana (Southern Most Mahajanapada ruled by Ikshvaku Kshatriyas)
  16. Gandhara - Taxila - famous for education. Kautilya studied here.
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23
Q

Maurya Period

History
Key Aspects
Edits

A
  1. Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Kautilya usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321 BC.

Important Rulers:
Chandragupta Maurya (324/321- 297 B.C.)
Bindusara (297 – 272 B.C.)
Asoka (268 – 232 B.C.)

  1. Megasthenes was a greek ambassador in Chandragupta Maurya’s court
  2. Under Bindusara, Ashoka was placed as Governor of Ujjain.
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24
Q

Who is Kautiyla/Chanakya? What is the relevance of his works?

A
  1. He wrote Arthashastra which is a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy.
  2. Arthashastra was rediscovered by R Shamasastry in 1905 after it had disappeared in the 12th century.
  3. The work contains 15 books and 180 chapters. The main theme is divided into:King, Council of Ministers and Departments of the Government
    Civil and criminal law
    Diplomacy of war
  4. It also contains information on trade and markets, a method to screen ministers, spies, duties of a king, ethics, social welfare, agriculture, mining, metallurgy, medicine, forests, etc.
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25
Q

What are key features of Mauryan administration?

A
  1. Mauryan administration was highly centralized.
  2. The Emperor was the supreme power and source of all authority.
  3. He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad’. The ministers were called ‘Mantris.’
  4. The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the Prime Minister of today.
  5. Tirthas: the Highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Tirthas.
  6. Adhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and military functions.
  7. Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials.
  8. Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They had administrative and judicial roles.

Other key terms:

Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the Empire’s revenue.
Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.
Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint
Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets
Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls
Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture
Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships
Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron
Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures
Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers
Pulisanj: Public relations officers
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26
Q

What were the important taxes under the Mauryas?

A
  1. Sita: tax on land
  2. Bali: religious tax
  3. Bhaga: tax on agricultural land
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27
Q

What is a general timeline of Ancient India?

A
  1. IVC
  2. Early Vedic
  3. Late Vedic
  4. Persian & Greek Invasions of Anicent India
  5. Rise of Maghada Empire i.e. Haranyaka, Sisunaga, Nanda (Advent of Buddhism+Jainism)
  6. Rise of Chandragupta Maurya & Maurya Dynasty
  7. Ashoka
  8. Sunga
  9. Satavahana
  10. Indo-Greek
  11. Saka
  12. Kushana
  13. Gupta Empire
  14. King Harshavardhana
  15. Pallavas
  16. Chalukya
  17. Pala
  18. Vakataka

*Maghada/MahaJanapada Period onwards is when Chera, Chola, Pandya empires started in the South. Equally Ancient.

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28
Q

What are the key aspects of Ashoka’s life and legacy?

A
  1. Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king but Ashoka was trained in military and weapons and showed great skills as an administrator when he was made the governor of Ujjain.
  2. In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC, Ashoka emerged victorious aided by his father’s ministers.
  3. When he became the king, he was said to be bad-tempered, ruthless and very cruel.
    He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This earned him the moniker Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka).
  4. Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest. In the ninth year of his reign, he waged war with Kalinga (in present-day Odisha)
  5. Ashoka became buddhist after and shunned violence in all forms. His 13th Major Rock Edict discusses the Kalinga war.
  6. He has 14 major rock edicts.
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29
Q

What was the nature of Mauryan material culture?

A
  1. They intensively used iron
  2. There was a prevalence of writing, punch marked coins, introduction of burnt bricks and ring wells
  3. Also introduced Northern Black Polished Ware
  4. The Sisupalgarh settlement contains NBPW, iron and punch marked coins
  5. According to Megasthenes - Pataliputra matched the grandiose of persia.
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30
Q

Ashoka & Art

What all did he do?

A
  1. Ashoka extensively patronized buddhist art and architecture
  2. Stone pullars were erected all over the Mauryan empire
  3. He regularly featured a Yakshi figurr
  4. He patronized rock-cut caves at Barabar Hills for the Ajivika sect.
  5. He constructed Stupas over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapliavastu, Allapappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina
  6. He added Jataka stories on railings and torans to tell stories.
  7. Greek accounts tell us much of the positive socio-economic conditions under the Mauryans characterized by good trade, carpentary and foreigner assimilation.
31
Q

The Sunga Dynasty (started in 186BC)

Founder
Legacy
Features

A
  1. Pushyamitra Sunga was a brahmin commander in Brihadrita’s army (last Mauryan ruler). He killed him and assumed the throne.
  2. Capital was paliputra and brahmanism was generally followed
  3. Sunga’s rule last over 3 kings and brought on the revival of hinduism
  4. Rajasuya, Ashvamedha etc. were carried out again after losing patronage under Ashokha
32
Q

What happened after the Sunga dynasty fell apart?

A
  1. The Sunga dynasty came to an end around 73 BCE when their ruler Devabhuti was killed by Vasudeva Kanva.
  2. The Kanva dynasty then ruled over Magadha for about 45 years. Around this time, another powerful dynasty, the Satavahanas came to power in the Deccan area.
  3. The term “Satvahana” originated from the Prakrit which means ” driven by seven” which is an implication of the Sun God’s chariot that is driven by seven horses as per Hindu mythology.
  4. The first king of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. Before the emergence of the Satavahana dynasty, there was a brief period with the Kanvas and Chedis
33
Q

The fall of the Mauryan empire resulted in splintering into multiple small political nodal points. Who were the key player after the collapse of the Mauryan dynasty?

A
  1. There was the emergence of the Kanvas & Chedis, followed by the Satavahanas
  2. The splintering in the Mauryan North-West territories resulted in a lot of invasion from that area, including from Central Asian and Greek rulers.
  3. This resulted in a brief Indo-Greek ruling period under rulers such as Menander I
  4. The Indo-Greeks extensively circulated coins to the north of Hindu Kush region that were were gold, silver, copper and nickel. The coins had greek legends and had royal portraits on the obverse and greek deities (Zeus, Apollo, and Athena) on the reverse.
  5. Coins circulated to the south of Hindu Kush region during the rule of Indo-Greeks were different in that they were mostly square in shape and had bilingual inscriptions and Indian religious symbols on the back.
  6. The Indo-Greek reign eventually fell when the Indo-Scythians (SAKAS) invaded and took over. The Sakas fell to the Kushanas (Kadphises 1) in the North-West/Pakistan region, and they fell eventually in Western India to the Guptas in 4th Century AD.
34
Q

Kushana Empire - Yuezhi tribe living on the Chinese frontier/central asia

Features
Salient Points
Rules

A

30AD to 80AD

Kadphises 1, Vima Kadphises, KANISHKA (one of the greatest)

  1. Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth Buddhist council was held in Sanskrit.
  2. Ashvoghosha is considered to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
  3. During this time, three distinct schools of art flourished: Gandhara School in northwest India, Amaravati School in Andhra and the Mathura School in the Ganges valley.
  4. Trade prospered between India and China, and India and the Roman Empire.
  5. The Kushanas controlled large parts of the Silk Route which led to the propagation of Buddhism into China. It was during this time that Buddhism began to spread to Korea and Japan also.
  6. Many towers, Chaityas, towns and beautiful sculptures were built under the patronage of the Kushana kings.
  7. Kushanas were foreign invaders, to begin with, but they were completely Indianised in ways and culture.
  8. It is said that the Kushana period in Indian history was a perfect forerunner to the golden age of the Guptas.
35
Q

The Gupta Empire

Founders
Features
Why is it known as the Golden Age?

A
  1. The Gupta Dynasty ruled the mid-to-late 3rd century (approximately) to 543 AD. Founded by Sri Gupta, the dynasty rose to fame with rulers like SriGupta, Ghatokcha, Chandragupta-I, Samudragupta
  2. The royal seal bore the imprint of Garuda
  3. Empire was divided into Bhuktis headed by Uparika and further had districts called Vishayas.
  4. Ashvamedha sacrifice was done as evidenced by some gold coins of Kumargupta 1.
  5. Known as the golden age as science, arts, literature all flourished in this period.
36
Q

The Guptan Economy

What were the different kind of taxes?

What kind of agriculture was practiced?

A
  1. Kilpta - sales tax and purchase tax
  2. Halivakara - tax slab for plough owners
  3. Bali - tax to king which was voluntary became compulsory
  4. Bhoga - tax in kind
  5. Bhaga - Kings share in all produce (1/6th)
  6. Bhatta - Police tax
  7. Shulka - custom/toll tax

The State exclusively owned the land and the Pustapala was the officer in charge of maintaining records of land transactions.

37
Q

The Gupta Coinage System

What kinds of coins? Different from other periods?

A
  1. They issued a large amount of gold coins called dinaras but they were not common. There was religious symbolism on them.
  2. After conquering Gujarat the Guptans issued silver coins for local exchange
  3. Cowries, according to Fa-Hien, became a common medium of exchange and they used very few copper coins as compared to the Kushanas before them.
38
Q

Gupta Culture

What practices started becoming prevalent?

How did society shape?

Which religions prospered?

Were they tolerant?

A
  1. Caste became rigid
  2. Land grants in the form of agraharas and devagraharas were given to Brahmins
  3. Untouchability started in this period and the Chandalas were segregated
  4. The position of women had also deteriorated
  5. The Guptans primarily followers of Brahmanism i.e. Saivism and Vaishnavisim, but were tolerant of religions and even donated for Bhagavatism, Buddhism & Jainism.
  6. First time temples were created in the form of structures - birth of Nagara style of temples.
39
Q

Art & Sculpture under the Guptas

A
  1. The great boar (Varaha) at the Udayagiri caves is a good example
  2. A copper image of buddha and sultanganj buddha are two copper metal sculpture examples.
  3. Paintings can be found in ajanta, bagh and badami. The frescoes were not true frecoes and were simple. The Ajanta and Bagh paintings show the Madhyadesa school of painting and the Ajanta caves specifically show the life of buddha and the Jataka stories with lustrous colours.
40
Q

Who were the famous literary scholars under the Gupta period?

A

Drama: Kalidasa, Bhasa, Vishakdatta, Shudraka

Ecology: Harisena (Prayag Prasasti)

Grammar: Dandin- Kavyadarshana, Amarsimha - Amarakosha, Chandragomin - Charavyakarana

Narrative Story: Vishnu Sharma - Panchatantra

Philosophy: Ishwar Krishna, Prashastipada, Acharya Vyasa, Vatsyayana (Kamasutra)

41
Q

What were the famous advents in science and technology under the Guptas?

Any big philosophical ideas?

A
  1. Aryabhatta wrote the book Aryabhatiyam in 499 AD and it deals with mathematics, astronomy and explains solar and lunar eclipses.
  2. Varahamira composed the Pancha Siddhantika - five astronomical systems
  3. Vagbhata, Susruta and Charaka - medical trio
  4. Mettalurgy saw a major advancement through work in Iron and Bronze.
  5. Philosophy: Yoga - Patanjali, Vedanta, Mimamsa - art of reasoning and interpretation
  6. Vaisheshika - importance given to atom theory and began the discussion of physics
42
Q

What were the major Sangam age empires?

A

Deccan & South - Ancient Sangam Age

Cheras
Cholas
Pandyas
Satavahanas (as seen in the tussle leading to the Mauryas in Deccan)

Early Medieval South

Imperial Chola Dynasty aka later Cholas (Rajaraja 1)
Chalukyas of Badami
Pallavas of Kanchi
Rashtrakutas

Eastern India

Palas
Eastern Gangas

Western & North
Prathiharas
Solankis

43
Q

Sangam Age (300 BC to 300AD)

Literary Sources
Eco-Divisions of Tamilagam

A
  1. Literary sources of this era are from Sangam literature: Tolkappiyam, Ettukotai (8 anthologies), Pattupattu

5 Eco Divisions - each region had a presiding diety and unique environmental conditions

Kurinji - Murugan - Hilly - hunting and honey collection
Mullai - Mayon (Vishnu) - Pastoral - cattle rearing and dairy
Marutham - Indra - agriculture
Neydal - Varunan - Coastal - fishing and salt manufacturing
Pallai - Korravai - desert - robbery

44
Q

The three most important Sangam era dynasties were the Chola, Cheras and Pandyas, what culture were they associated with?

Where were their capitals?

A
  1. These dynasties are called the Muvendars and they were associated with Megalithic culture

Cholas:
between Pennar and Velar rivers -Central & Northern parts of TN
capital was Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade)
history begins with the coming of ruler Karikala in 2nd century AD
kaveripattinam served as the capital

Pandyas:
kingdom celebrated for pearls by megasthenes
capital was madurai
important port - korkai
Neduncheziyan was the famous king
Meenakshi temple, Madurai and Nellaiappar temple are all important.

Cheras: 
Controlled central and northern parts of Kerala and Kongu region of tamil nadu
Vanji was their caputal
greatest king was senguttuvan
known for pepper
45
Q

What were the types of available land under the Chola era?

What was a Chola Sabha?

A
  1. Vellanvagai - land for non-brahamana peasant proprietors
  2. Brahmadeya - land gifted to Brahmanas
  3. Shalabhoga - land for the maintenance of a school
  4. Devadana/Tirunamattukkani - land gifted to temples
  5. Pallichchhandam - land donated to Jaina institutions

A chola sabha was assembly and to be a member, one must own the land, have knowledge of the vedas and have submitted their accounts amongst other things.

46
Q

The Satavahanas origin and breakup

A
  1. The Satavahanas held an important position under the Mauryas, however after Ashoka’s death they became independent
  2. Satavahanas were the first to offer land grants to buddhists and brahmins and the Nanaghat inscriptions refers to tax exemptions given to the lands granted to buddhish monks.
  3. They eventually fell and were succeeded by the Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas of Badami and Pandyas of Madurai in the South, the vakatakas in Maharashtra and the Iskhvakus on the eastern side of the peninsula.
47
Q

Pallavas of Kanchi

Famous Rulers
Features
Temples

A
  1. Famous rulers include: Mahendravaramana 1 and Narasimhavarman. Narasimhavarman defeated the ruler Pulakeshin II and occupied the Chalukyan capital of Vatapi.
  2. Authority extended over Southern Andhra and Northern Tamil Nadu with Kanchi as the capital.
  3. Important temples: Kailashnath temple at Kanchi, Vaikunthperumal temple and Shore temple at Mahabalipuram.
48
Q

Imperial Chola Dynasty (Later Cholas)

Founder
Famous Rulers
Legacy
Features

A
  1. Started by Vijayalaya in 9th Century AD
  2. Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola were its most famous rulers
  3. They built Brihadeesvara temple in Tanjavur and Rajeshwara temple in Kerala
  4. Rajendra Chola built the new capital - Gangaikondacholapuram
  5. The Uttarmerrur inscription during the chola dynasty gives the detailed functioning of a local government at the Ur (village) level.
49
Q

Chalukyas of Badami
Founder
Features
Rulers

A
  1. Their kingdom was set up towards the beginning of the 6th century AD
  2. Pulakeshin II was a famous ruler who is known to us from the Aihole inscription composed by ravikriti
  3. He conquered Vengi in 610 AD and set up a new Chalukyas branch.
  4. Vikramaditya was another famous ruler who fought with the Pallavas.
  5. Famous for its stone temples in Karnataka.
  6. Defeated by the Rashtrakutas in 757AD.
50
Q

Rashtrakutas

Founder
Features

A
  1. Founded by Dantidurga at Manyaketha
  2. Famous rulers: Govinda III, Amoghavarsha, Indra III, Krishna III
  3. Amoghavarsha wrote a book on poetics in Kannada called Kavirajamarga
  4. The famous rock cut temple of Shiva at Ellora was built by Krishna I in 9th century AD
  5. No Purdah in the Rashtrakuta empire based on Arabic sources.
51
Q

Palas

Founder
Features
Rulers
Temples
Education
A
  1. Founder was Gopala and their main territory was present day Bengal. They also did conquer parts of Odisha and Assam.
  2. Nalanda was revived under Dharampala and he also founded the Vikramashila university.
  3. Dharampala built one of the best known Buddhisht Vihara’s - the Somapura Mahavira in Paharpur.
  4. They followed Buddishm in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar.
52
Q

Eastern Gangas

Founder
Features
Important Points

A
  1. Ruled Kalinga during 11th-15th century with capital at Kalinganagar
  2. Founder was Anantavarmana
  3. The King Narasimhdeva built the Konark temple at Odisha
53
Q

Pratiharas

Founder
Features
Important Points

A
  1. The founder was Harishchandra and they ruled much of Northern India from mid-8th century to 11th century.
  2. First capital was Ujjain and then later was Kannauj
  3. Important rules also included Nagabhatta II and Bhoja.
  4. The famous Khajuraho temple in MP belongs to his dynasty
54
Q

Chalukyas of Gujarat - Solankis

Founder
Features
Important Points

A
  1. Dynasty was established by Mularaja from 943AD to 996AD
  2. It was a hindu dynasty with its capital at Anhilwara (now Sidhpur Patan)
  3. The Solankis were patrons of the Somnath Temple and they also built the sun temple at Modhera.
  4. Bhimdev I was an important ruler whose reign saw the attack from Mahmud Ghaznavi on Somnath.
55
Q

What are general yet important features of Hindu temples?

A
  1. Shikhara - the vital element is the miniature temple towers placed on top of the other
  2. Garbhagriha - where the idols are placed (sanctum)
  3. Mandapa - pillared hall which lies in front of the Garbhagriha
  4. Ardhmandapa - lies next to the Mandapa
  5. Antarala- joins the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa
  6. Pradakshinapatha - the gallery that surrounds the Garbagriha and it is meant for Pradoshan/Parikrama.

NOTE: earliest temple structures include Lad Khan Temple - Aihole.

56
Q

What are the 2 distinct temple design schools? What are their respective features?

A
  1. Nagara (North Indian)
  • Square garbhagriha
  • tapering Shikharas
    eg. Khajuraho built by Chandellas of Bundelkhund, Jagannath temple in Puri and Sun Temple in Konark
  1. Dravida (South Indian)
    - Square garbhagriha
    - Octagonal and pyramid-style shikharas
    - Gopurams - towering structures
    - Mandapas
    eg. Brihadeeshvara temple and Mahabalipuram temple

Note: Vesara is a mix of Nagara and Dravida.

57
Q

Art & Culture

What is the guiding text on Indian classical dance?
What are some of the famous classical dances?

A

Natyashastra - written by Bharat Muni, defines indian classical dance and all 4 vedas contribute to the art form. There are 8 Indian classical dances.

  1. Bharatnatyam - TN - oldest - devadasi system
  2. Kathakali - Kerala
  3. Kathak - Raslila in the Braj region
  4. Manipuri - Manipur
  5. Odissi - Odisha
  6. Kuchipudi - Andhra Pradesh
  7. Sattriya - Assam
  8. Mohiniyattam - Kerala
58
Q

What are some of the important folk dances?

A
  1. Bihu - Assam
  2. Bhangra - Punjab
  3. Garba - Gujarat
  4. Jhoomar - Punjab
  5. Gidha - Pubjab
  6. Kummi - TN
  7. Bamboo Dance - Nagaland
  8. Jatra - WB
59
Q

What are some of the famous painting schools in India?

What are their important features?

A
  1. Wall Paintings
    - as seen in Buddhist art
    - Ajanta 2nd century BCE to 7th century AD (mostly Jatakas)
    - Badami caves feature Hindu paintings
    - Ellora features Hindu, Buddhist and Jain
    - True fresco done in Tanjore
  2. Miniature painting
    Pala School
    - Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila
    - Workships done for casting bronze image

Western Indian School
- Gujarat, Rajashtan, Malwa

Mughals
- Secular themes + safavid persian school of painting

  1. Kalamkari Painting
    - Epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata
  2. Phad painting
    - Painted scroll depicting stories about local deities and legendary heroes.
60
Q

What are the types of important theatre forms?

A
  1. Bhand Panther - Kashmir
  2. Swang - Haryana
  3. Nautanki - UP
  4. Rasleela - Krishna legends
  5. Bhavai - Gujarat
  6. Dashavatar - Goa & Konkan
  7. Krishnattam - Kerala
  8. Therukoothu - TN - street play
61
Q

What are the important types of puppet forms?

A
  1. String Puppet - Rajasthan (Kathaputli), Orissa (Kundhei), Karnataka (Gombeyetta), TN (Bommalattam)
  2. Shadow Puppet - Karnataka (Togalu Gombayetta), Andhra (Tholu Bommalatta), Orissa (Ravamacjjaua)
  3. Rod Puppets - WB (Putul Nautch), Bihar (Yampuri)
  4. Glove puppets - Kerala (Pavakoothu)
62
Q

What are the classical languages of India?

Does the Constitution specify any particular languages?

A
  1. Article 343 gave Hindi the status of official language of the Union
  2. Sanskrit is mentioned having a special status under Art 351 as being the mother for many languages

Classical Languages:

  1. Tamil
  2. Sanskrit
  3. Telugu
  4. Kannada
  5. Malayalam
  6. Odiya
63
Q

What are the broad coinage differences over time across India?

A
  1. Punch marked coins - the earliest - minted by the Mahajanapadas and had markings of animals too
  2. Indo-greek coins - Greek on one side and Kharosthi on the other - carried detailed info and were made of silver, copper, nickel and lead
  3. Satavahana coins - used mainly lead and potin - one side had an animal figure (horse, lion, elephant) or chaitya and the other had the Ujjain symbol - language was prakrit.
  4. Satrap/Saka/Indo-Scythian coins - head of the king on one side and the other side had the buddhist chaitya or stupa
  5. Guptan coins - mainly gold (some silver and copper too) - one side had the king playing veena/doing ashvamedha/riding a horse/slaying a lion and the other side is the goddess Lakshmi seated on a throne/or a lotus seal.
  6. Chalukyan coins - temple or lions and other side blank - later a boar at the center
  7. Chola and Pandya coins - square and image of an elephant in the early period and later the fish became the important symbol - gold and silver had sanskrit and copper had tamil - Rajendra had GKCP
  8. Pallava coins - figure of a lion
  9. Turkish and Delhi coins - no images of the monarch - name of mint inscribed - gold, cooper, silver and bullion - Khilji removed Khalif name - Sher Shah Suri standardized weight
  10. Vijaynagar - gold, pure silver and copper - some had pagodas, some gold fanams - inscriptions in kannada or sanskrit - gold varahan coin had a seated vishnu
  11. Mughal - standard was Mohur - 170 - 175 grains - akbar has round and square coins
63
Q

What are the broad coinage differences over time across India?

A
  1. Punch marked coins - the earliest - minted by the Mahajanapadas and had markings of animals too
  2. Indo-greek coins - Greek on one side and Kharosthi on the other - carried detailed info and were made of silver, copper, nickel and lead
  3. Satavahana coins - used mainly lead and potin - one side had an animal figure (horse, lion, elephant) or chaitya and the other had the Ujjain symbol - language was prakrit.
  4. Satrap/Saka/Indo-Scythian coins - head of the king on one side and the other side had the buddhist chaitya or stupa
  5. Guptan coins - mainly gold (some silver and copper too) - one side had the king playing veena/doing ashvamedha/riding a horse/slaying a lion and the other side is the goddess Lakshmi seated on a throne/or a lotus seal.
  6. Chalukyan coins - temple or lions and other side blank - later a boar at the center
  7. Chola and Pandya coins - square and image of an elephant in the early period and later the fish became the important symbol - gold and silver had sanskrit and copper had tamil - Rajendra had GKCP
  8. Pallava coins - figure of a lion
  9. Turkish and Delhi coins - no images of the monarch - name of mint inscribed - gold, cooper, silver and bullion - Khilji removed Khalif name - Sher Shah Suri standardized weight
  10. Vijaynagar - gold, pure silver and copper - some had pagodas, some gold fanams - inscriptions in kannada or sanskrit - gold varahan coin had a seated vishnu
  11. Mughal - standard was Mohur - 170 - 175 grains - akbar has round and square coins
64
Q

Early Medieval India

What is Sufism?
What are the institutions they set up?
What are the specific orders?
Famous Sufis?

A
  1. Originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India
  2. Khanqah (abode of Sufis) set in in Northern India took Sufism deeper into India
  3. Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting place of muslim saints) became centres of propagation
  4. It was a liberal reform movement in Islam
  5. Wahdat-ul-Wajud - Unity of Being was the underlying concept.

Two main orders:
Chishti - oldest silsila established in Ajmer
Suhrawardi - established in Multan by Bahauddin Zakaria - it was more luxurious

65
Q

Bhakti Movement

What was it?
Famous proponents?
Subdivisons?

A
  1. Mass movement that focused on bhakti as a way to attain moksha. It removed focus away from caste and opened up more to women
  2. It took place extensively in Tamil Nadu in the 7th and 12th centuries AD
  3. Virashaivas/Lingayats were a subgroup who worshipped Shiva as a Linga and they rejected rebirth, caste hierarchy and advocated widow remarriage
  4. Ramanuja was a famous Bhakti saint, and he believe in praptti (completely surrender)
  5. Kabir was another famous disciple
  6. Mira Bhai was a famoous female follower
66
Q

Vijayanagar Empire

Founder
Features
Important Points

A
  1. There were four key dynasties : Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu and they ruled from 1336 AD to 1672 AD
  2. Literary sources: Srirangam copper places of Devaraya 2 and Nicolo Conti visited and Court of Devaraya 1 and gave an account of empire
  3. There was constant conflict between VN empire and Bahami kingdom
  4. Important rulers - Deveraya II and Krishna Devaraya
  5. Administration was divided into Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas and Gramas.
67
Q

Vijayanagar Administration

How was it divided?

A
  1. It was divided into Mandalams, Nadus and Sthalas and finally into Gtamas. The governor of a Mandalam was called the Mandaleshwar or Nayak.
  2. A Body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars conducted the village affairs.
  3. Ship building had developed under this empire even more, and even their women went to battles.
  4. Famous cultural point: Hampi ruins.
68
Q

Bahamini Kingdom

Founder
Features
Salient Points

A
  1. It was to the north of the Vijaynagar state and was Islamic in nature.
  2. The founder was Allaudin Bahman Shah.
  3. Dakhini was the new court language and Bhagyanagar was made into Hyderabad.
  4. Fought many battles with Vijayanar Empire.
69
Q

Arabic and Turkish Invasions

What is the timeline of these invasions?

Any specific sites that were targeted?

A
  1. Muhammad Bin Qasim
    - Al-Hajjajj, the Governor of Iraq sent Muhammad-bin-Qasim to India. He Conquered Sind with the permission of Caliph Walid.
    - Sind and Multan were divided into a number of Iqtas or districts by Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Arab military officers headed the Iqtas.
    - The sub-divisions of the districts were administered by the local Hindu Officers.
    - Jizya was imposed on non-Muslims.
    - Islam entered through Qasim’s invasions
  2. Mahmud of Ghazni (971 to 1030)
    - In 1001 A.D. Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India
    - He was the first Turkish to invade India.
    - He targeted Somnath temple in 1025 A.D.
  3. Muhammad of Ghori (1149 – 1206)
  • He took over after Ghazni death, and became the third Muslim ruler who invaded India.
  • He became the ruler of Ghori.
  • Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as the commander by Muhammad of Ghori
  • There were many Rajput mutinies between 1193 and 1198 A.D.
  • Qutb-ud-din-Aibak defeated them and brought many regions under his control.
    Muhammad of Ghori made Delhi as the capital.
70
Q

What are the important Delhi Sultanate Dynasties?

Who are their key rulers?

A
  1. The Slave Dynasty
    - Led by Qutubuddin Aibak - foundation stone for Qutub Minar was under his reign.
    - He was followed by Illtutmish who was credited with developing land grant iqta system
  2. Khilji Dynasty
    - Jalaluddin Khalji overthrew the Slave dynasty and established Diwan-e-wakoof (state exp. dept.)
    - Allaudin Khilji - ruthless ruler that forbade wine and intoxicants and constantly launched assaults against rajputs. First to pay soliders in 3 tranches.
  3. Tughlaq Dynasty
    - Muhammed Bin Tughlaq - moved capital from Delhi to deogir.
    - He also introduced token currency
    - His successor, Firoz, paid soliders in land and had a separate tax to fund public works.
  4. Lodhi Dynasty
    - Sikandar Lodhi ruled from Agra and under him robbers and dacoits suffered and he demolished many hindu temples.
    - Ibrahim Lodhi was the arrogant ruler that led to Pubjab Governor inviting Babur to invade India and Babur beat Lodhis at first Battle of Panipat in 1526, ushering Mughal rule.
  5. Kashmir
    - Sikandar Shah persecuted Brahmins in the valley and imposed Jaziya
    - His successor abolished Jaziya and tried to respect Hindus more.

NOTE: . Iqtadari, Zamindari and Jagirdari system led to the disintegration of Delhi Sultanate.

71
Q

What is the timeline of Mughal Rulers?

What are some key points associated with them?

A
  1. Babur - founder
  2. Humayun - lost to Afghani Sher Shah and went on 15yrs exile before retaking territory
  3. Sher Shah - Introduced a new silveer coin and insisted on measurement of sown land
  4. Akbar - most glorious. tolerant. He launched a mansabdari system from 10 (lowest) to 5000 (highest) to correspond to nobles. Came up with a 4-way land distribution system - Polaj (every year), Parauti (once in 2 years), Chachar (once every 3-4 yrs) and Banjar (once in 5 years).
  5. Jahangir - beheaded the 5th skih Guru Arjun.
  6. Shah Jahan - made taj mahal and was put in prison by his son.
  7. Aurangzeb - despot, islamist radical, executed the 9th sikh. Made marathas and rajputs into enemies.
72
Q

What is the timeline of the Marathas?

Who are the important rulers?

Key points about them?

A
  1. Shivaji (1627-80AD) - Most glorious ruler. He had a navy. Ashtapradhan was his grandcouncil. Constantly fought and defeated Mughals in Guerilla wars.
  2. Rajaram - Greated the new post of Pratnidhi making total number of ministers into 9
  3. Shahu - He was released by Bahadur Shah and defeated Tarabai in the Battle of Khed. Led to division of Marathas of Satara etc. Same era gave rise to Balaji Vishawanath and the rise of Peshwa rule that made the post hereditary.
  4. Balaji Vishwanath - 1st Peshwa ruler.

UPSC Prep (8 decks)

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