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Biology Year 2 > Ecology > Flashcards

Ecology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is ecology as a study?

A
  • the study of organism-environment relationships
  • one of the most divers and interdisciplinary sciences
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2
Q

What may occur when one organism is destroyed? Why?

A

Ecology indicates the links between everything, nothing is isolated, everything is interconnected

  • the destruction of one organism can lead to the destruction of other organisms
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3
Q

What are 3 reasons why ecology is important?

A
  • provides information about the benefits of ecosystems and sustainable uses of the earth’s resources (for farming, construction, sustainability, etc)
  • allows us to predict the consequences of human activity
  • helps find solutions to burning issues ie: habitat destruction
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4
Q

What is an ecosystem? What is the biosphere?

A

Ecosystem: Includes all organisms in an area and the physical environment in which they interact

Biosphere: Highest level of ecological organization, can be viewed as the global ecosystem (includes all living things on planet : bacteria, animals, plants, etc)

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5
Q

How does one distinguish a biome?

A

Biomes distinguished primarily by their predominant plants and are associated with particular climates

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6
Q

Describe the ecology of warblers case study

A

Prediction: 2 species with identical ecological requirements cannot coexist due to competition, cannot live together indefinitely

  • 5 warblers in spruce forest found to coexist via resource partitioning: eat on different sections of the tree
  • suggested that aggression between species maintains feeding zones
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7
Q

Describe a large scale case study of ecology

A
  • Lakes turning green (eutrophication)
    -Algae was growing due to excess nutrients but which nutrients
  • lab experiments were inconclusive, needed a whole lake
  • lake 226: part of lake with added Phosphorus turned green coming from household detergents - communication allows ban, water quality improved
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8
Q

What is eutrophication?

A

Process by which excess algae grows due to extra nutrients (typically phosphorus) residing in the water

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9
Q
A
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10
Q

What did Darwin discover on his trips to the Galapagos?

A
  • every island had related species and each species traits varied among islands
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11
Q

Describe evolution

A

process that changes populations of organisms over time
- descent with modification

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12
Q

What is Darwin’s theory of natural selection?

A
  • more offspring are produced each generation that can survive
  • heritable variation in traits among individuals in population
  • some individuals have greater fitness, which become more common in the population over subsequent generations
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13
Q

What is fitness?

A

Ability to survive and reproduce
- greater fitness traits more common and frequent

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14
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel?

A
  • monk who studied garden peas
  • discovered characteristics pass to offspring in genes
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15
Q

What is the basic unit of heredity?

A

Genes.

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16
Q

Describe genes

A
  • portion of a DNA molecule and the basic unit of heredity
  • exist in different forms called alleles
  • dominant and recessive
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17
Q

What is the modern synthesis theory

A
  • Darwin and Mendel’s theories complemented each other perfectly, revolutionized biology
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18
Q

What is the cause of phenotypic variation?

A
  • combined effects of genes and environments causes variation
    –> Phenotype = genotype + environment + (G x E interaction)
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19
Q

What is phenotypic plasticity ?

A

variation among individuals in form, function, or physiology ad a result of environmental influence

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20
Q

What are distinctive ecotypes?

A
  • distinct form or race of a plant or animal species occupying a particular habitat
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21
Q

Why might plant species differ dramatically in one elevation to another?

A

Clausen found evidence of adaptation by ecotypes to local environmental conditions

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22
Q

Describe the Potentilla Glandulosa variation?

A
  • 3 main gardens of plant clones at different elevations
  • garden experiment revealed potential genetic differences among populations
  • ecotypes present, plant’s variation increases based on environment
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23
Q

What is an ecotype?

A

a population (or subspecies or race) that is adapted to local environmental conditions.
- - unique plants adapted to a local environment
- specific traits made for unique environment

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24
Q

Review the genetic variation and heritability equation

A
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25
Q

What are two processes by which evolution may occur

A
  • natural selection or random processes (genetic drift)
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26
Q

What can genetic drifts cause?

A
  • gene variations to disappear completely / reduce genetic variation
  • rare alleles to become more frequent
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27
Q

What is the Hardy Weinberg principles?

A

If strict conditions true (e.g., no selection, random mating, infinitely large populations) allelic variation in a gene will be maitnained

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28
Q

What are the major forms of selection?

A
  • stabilizing, directional, disruptive
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29
Q

What is stabilizing selection?

A
  • impedes changes in a population by acting against extreme phenotypes and favouring average phenotypes
  • small and greater fitness becomes low, phenotype remains the most common
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30
Q

What is an example of stabilizing selection?

A
  • ural owl hatching success: lowered fitness in individuals who lay small and large eggs
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31
Q

What is directional selection?

A
  • directional selection leads to changes in phenotypes by favouring an extreme phenotype over others
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32
Q

What is an example of directional selection?

A

Soapberry bugs : soapberry bugs in FL have shorter beak, in central US longer
- beaks correlated with fruit size

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33
Q

What is disruptive selection?

A
  • Creates bimodal distributions by favouring two or more extreme phenotypes over the average phenotype in a population
  • phenotypically diverse,
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34
Q

What is speciation?

A
  • natural selection and genetic drift change gene frequencies: in combo with physical and ecological processes and over time evolution of new species may occur
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35
Q

What is a species?

A
  • multiple definitions
  • most commonly defines using Mayr’s concept: a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups
    (must be able to breed together)
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36
Q

What is hybridization driven extinction?

A
  • introduced species interbreed with native species leading to the lost of the native species’ distinct genetic identity
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37
Q

What is the morphological species concept?

A
  • classification of organisms belonging to the same species based on conserved morphological features
  • this concept may be useful when organisms do not reproduce or are extinct/only know by fossils
    -a concept that characterizes a species based on its structural features, like body shape.
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38
Q

What is the biological species concept?

A
  • when populations of organisms are able to interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring are classified as belonging to the same biological species
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39
Q

What is the phylogenetic species concept?

A
  • defines species based upon evolutionary history and phylogenetic similarity
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40
Q

what may cause new species?

A

Physical and ecological processes interact with selection and drift to produce new species
- ie: environment and genes can cause phenotypic variation - leading to new species

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41
Q

What is allopatric speciation?

A
  • occurs when a single population becomes spatially subdivided into multiple subpopulations
  • exchanging genes stops because of distance/isolation
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42
Q

What is parapatric speciation?

A

Occurs when a population expands into a new habitat within the range of its parent species
- extreme change in habitat followed by interbreeding

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43
Q

What is sympatric speciation?

A
  • Occurs when a single population forms genetically distinct subpopulations with no spatial isolation
  • new species evolves from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region
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44
Q

Label/describe the images for allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric speciation

A
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45
Q

Do sympatric speciation new species breed with the former species?

A

No!

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46
Q
A
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47
Q

Why would a bee sting someone even if it will die?

A
  • worker bees wish to ensure their genes are passed on by protecting the hive: a form of altruism, natural selection favours
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48
Q

What is behaviour? What causes it?

A
  • Behaviour is the observable response of organisms to internal or external stimuli
  • causes focus on genetic and physiological mechanics
  • real reason is to improve reproductive success
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49
Q

What causes behaviour? What is its primary focus?

A
  • based on genetic and physiological mechanics
  • focus on its effects on reproductive success
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50
Q

What is behavioural ecology?

A

The study of social relations (the interactions between organisms and the environment are mediated by behaviour)

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51
Q

What mediates the relationship between organisms and the environment?

A

Behaviour

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52
Q

What is sociobiology?

A

Branch of biology concerned about the study of social relations

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53
Q

What is the scientific study of behaviour called?

A

Ethology

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54
Q

Can natural selection act on behaviour?

A
  • yes! Natural selection selects for behaviour to promote reproductive success
  • natural selection can work on all aspects of an organism (behaviour, phenotype)
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55
Q

Give an example of natural selection working on behaviour

A
  • a single gene alters the role of a honey bee: the value fo foraging and hive building conditions depend on local conditions
  • bees that are active foragers are likely less fit than bees that don’t forage until later
  • another example may be prides of lions who have social benefits
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56
Q

What is inclusive fitness? Who introduced the concept?

A
  • Hamilton introduced
  • individuals overall fitness is determined by its survival and reproduction plus the survival and reproduction of its relative (who the individual shares genes with)
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57
Q

Why might an animal be less interested in protecting a baby unrelated to them?

A
  • not genetically related, wish to preserve their genes
  • that being said, animals are still likely to protect young of others, but infanticide may also occur as an act of selfishness
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58
Q

What is the selection for helping relatives called? What is it?

A

Kin selection
–> An evolutionary strategy that favours the reproductive success of an organism’s relatives, even at a cost of the organisms own survival and reproduction
-> ensure the survival of genes!

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59
Q

Why might an organism sacrifice itself to preserve its relatives?

A
  • to ensure the survival of genes they both share
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60
Q

What is inclusive fitness a combination of?

A
  • combination of direct and indirect fitness

inclusive fitness works to preserve actor’s personal reproductive success as well as kin

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61
Q

What is direct and indirect fitness?

A
  • direct fitness affect: actor’s own reproductive success
  • indirect fitness effect: the impact on the reproductive success of social partners, weighted by the relatedness of the actor to the recipient
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62
Q

What are the 4 main classes of social interaction? Who are they between?

A

Between donor and recipient, can have positive or negative impacts for those involved
- cooperation, selfishness, altruism, spite

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63
Q

Provide an example of spite please.

A
  • parasitoid wasp
  • sterile soldier wasps attack relatively unrelated brother larvae so the genetically identical sisters have more access to food
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64
Q

Which social interactions might natural selection select against? Which ones might it select for?

A
  • spite and altruism have negative fitness consequences for the donor
  • cooperation and selfishness have positive donor fitness consequences
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65
Q

What is altruism? Provide and example

A
  • an act that benefits the recipient but harms the donor
  • the red squirrel adopts offspring of another squirrel (expends energy for the donor, the recipient is benefitted)
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66
Q

What is the goal of most altruistic acts?

A
  • to benefit the individual’s close relatives or kin
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67
Q

Why might an organism take care of its young if it costs energy?

A
  • an act of altruism: offspring have copies of their parent’s gene so when parents take care of their young they are helping the survival of their own genes
  • these genes continue on, and are therefore favoured by natural selection
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68
Q

What is group selection?

A
  • individual acts counter to own interest for betterment of group
  • criticized as inconsistent with evolutionary understanding
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69
Q

Why is group selection criticized as a theory?

A
  • Because it goes against evolutionary understanding: why would an individual reduce its own well being, natural selection might be expected to go against that
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70
Q

Does altruism present in all situations?

A

no, altruisms role is actually debated - but known to occur in some circumstances

  • some ecologists accept that individual gain is more likely to be selected for than group selection (resulting in behaviour like infanticide)
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71
Q

Why might altruism be a point of contention for some?

A
  • natural selections leads us to expect animals to behave in ways that increase their own chances of survival and reproduction, not of others
  • altruism puts animals at a select disadvantage than those who act selfishly
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72
Q

What is the reasoning for why altruism has not been eliminated by natural selection?

A

May have evolved by a progress between group selection

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73
Q

What is Hamilton’s rule?

A
  • rB>C
  • study the coefficients and the math plz
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74
Q

What is sociality?

A
  • the fundamental change in relationships among individuals that comes with group living
  • generally positive relationships, ‘worth it’
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75
Q

What is sociality generally accompanied by?

A
  • cooperative feeding, defence of the social group, restricted reproductive opportunities
  • cooperation generally involves exchanges of resources or other forms of assistance
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76
Q

What is eusociality? What are the 3 major characteristics?

A
  • more complex level of sociality
  • 3 major characteristics :
  • individuals of more than on generation living together
  • cooperative care of young
  • division of individuals into non-reproductive and reproductive castes
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77
Q

What are the two forms of castes? What are they a result of?

A

Reproductive and non-reproductive castes found in eusocial groups

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78
Q

What are cooperative breeders?

A
  • groups of adults cooperate in producing/rearing offspring including not their own
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79
Q

What are the benefits for helpers associated with cooperative breeding?

A
  • inclusive fitness
  • inherited territory
    -kin selection
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80
Q

Describe the example of African Lions and sociality

A

–

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81
Q

How did eusociality evolve?

A
  • kin selection may play role: in leaf cutters workers may be more related to other workers than to their own offspring
  • ecological constrains: work required may demand more complex social behaviour, limited resources/mating prospects, etc
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82
Q

What behaviour does natural selection favour?

A
  • behaviours that increase the inclusive fitness of individuals
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83
Q

What are trade-offs? What term is associated?

A
  • If organisms use energy for one function, energy for other function is reduced = the principle of allocation
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84
Q

What are life histories?

A
  • the sequence of events related to survival and reproduction that occurs from birth to death
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85
Q

What is the principle of allocation?

A
  • how an organisms allocated energy within a segment of its overall energy budget
  • leads to trade-offs between functions such as number and size of offspring
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86
Q

What is allometry?

A

The study of scaling between body size and various biological functions

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87
Q

Which animal shows more variation in life history than any other group?

A
  • fish show the most variation in life history!
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88
Q

What does fecundicity mean?

A
  • the number of offspring produced by an organism
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89
Q

Describe the darter population study in relation to gene variance

A
  • Turner and treadler found darter populations that produced many small eggs showed less difference in allelic frequencies than populations producing few, large eggs
  • proposed larvae from larger eggs hatch earlier: do not drift as far, and don’t disperse as greatly
  • results in greater gene isolation and rapid gene differentiation
  • smaller larvae lead to greater gene flow
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90
Q

Which size darter has greater gene flow? What does this represent?

A

The smaller larvae
- these are the consequences of life history trade-offs in darters
- more incubation time = more gene flow ??

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91
Q

Which two factors influence seed size and population?

A

Seed dispersal mode and plant growth form

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92
Q

What are the 4 recognized plant forms?

A

( Westoby )
- Graminoids: grass and grass-like plants
- Forbs - herbaceous non-graminoids (little or no woody tissue and persisting for a single growing season)
- Woody plants: woody thickening of tissues
- climbers : Climbing plants and vines

**Woody plants and climbers produce 10x mass of seeds

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93
Q

Which plants produce greater seed mass?

A

Plant forms Climbers and woodyplants: produce 10x the seed mass of forbs

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94
Q

What are the 6 seed dispersal strategies?

A
  • unassisted: no specialized strucutres
    -adhesion: hooks, spines, barbs
  • wind: wings, hair, resistance structures
  • ant: Oil surface coating (elaisome-oil which sticks to ants)
  • vertebrate: fleshy coating (aril)
  • scatter-hoarded: gathered, stored in caches
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95
Q

What is the relationship between seed mass and number?

A

Negative relationship: greater mass, smaller number

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96
Q

What is the conclusion about seed size in areas of high disturbance and high stress?

A
  • small plants producing large number of small seeds appear to have an advantage in areas of high disturbance
  • large plants with large seeds produce fewer seedling but more capable of surviving environmental hazards due to deep rooting (more nutrients/grounding)
97
Q

Which plants would do best in areas of high stress?

A

Small plants (forbs, graminoids) that produce smaller seeds tend to do better in high stress areas

98
Q

Why might larger plants do better in areas of high disturbance?

A
  • climbers and woody plants produce large, but limited number, of seeds = allows for deep rooting and more nutrient access so they are less impacted by disturbance
99
Q

How does adult survival and reproductive allocation describe tradeoffs?

A
  • shine and charnov pointed out that vertebrate energy budgets are different before and after sexual maturity
  • before energy is dedicated to maintenance or growth, whereas after its maintenance, growth, and reproduction
  • individuals delaying reproduction will grow faster and reach a larger size
100
Q

Why might an individual who matures later have greater success?

A
  • ‘trade-off’ they can dedicate more energy to maintenance and growth and reach a bigger size - THEN they can reproduce = greater chances of survival,
101
Q

Who has a greater chance of survival? Organism who has delayed or early reproduction age

A

Delayed!

102
Q

What relationship might be found with higher mortality rates in fish?

A
  • higher mortality = higher production rates
103
Q

Name the scientists associated with experiments

A
  • shine and charnov: adult survival and reproduction allocation
  • bertschy and fox: pumpkinseed fish
  • westoby: plant size and seed dispersal
104
Q

What were the findings of Bertschy and Fox’s experiment on pumpkinseed fish?

A
  • supported theory that when adult survival is lower relative to juvenile survival, natural selection allocates greater resources to reproduction/increased reproductive efforts
  • likewise, life history theory suggests that high adult survival relative to juvenile survival favours, delayed maturity and reduced reproductive effort is favoured (corroborates what we know!)
105
Q

What is being favoured by natural selection when the adult fish have greater mortality than the juveniles?

A
  • NS is favouring reproduction, allow them to reproduce quicker
106
Q

What are the two conclusions researchers reached from Pumpkinseed fish experiment?

A
  • populations with higher adult survival mature at an older age
  • if females survive to greater ages reproductive effort decrease
  • higher rates of adult mortality can favour greater allocation of resources to reproduction
107
Q

What are the 2 life history classifications?

A

r selection and K selection

108
Q

What is r selection?

A
  • r: measure of population growth rate
  • larger values: rapidly growing population
  • r selected species good colonizers, found in habitats with high levels of disturbance (dandelion = small, rapid growth, short life span, small seeds w/good dispersal)
109
Q

What is K selection?

A

K: max sustainable size of population
- larger values: habitat that can support larger population size
- k selected species have traits favouring efficient use of resources: found in habitats where populations always near carrying capacity
ex: Oak: large, slow growth, long life span, few seeds, poor seed dispersal

110
Q

what is true of r and k selection?

A

most organisms are in between!

111
Q

What is semelparity?

A

semelparity: if the environment is stable, then selection favours a single act of reproduction because ether organism can devote all its energy to making offspring and not maintaining its own body
- ie: bugs have short lifespan so will reproduce just once, can dedicate energy to babies and ensuring their survival

  • common in insects and other invertebrates and some plants
112
Q

What is iteroparity?

A
  • if survival of juveniles is poor and unpredictable selection favours repeated reproduction and long reproductive life to increase chance that juveniles will survive some years
  • common in vertebrates and perennial plants such as trees
113
Q

What are the organisms of r selected species?

A
  • r-selected traits include organisms ranging from bacteria and diatoms, to insects and grasses, to various mammals and small rodents
114
Q

What are some k selected organisms?

A
  • k selected traits include large organisms such as elephants humans and whales but also smaller long lived organisms (arctic terns)
115
Q

Which species, k or r, are at risk of extinction? Why?

A
  • In a human-dominated world, k selected species are at risk of extinction
  • limited habitat, fewer offspring so opulations cannot recover as quickly, generation times are long + breed at a later age
116
Q

What are the two variables exerting the most selective pressure in plants?

A

Intensity of disturbance: any process limiting plants by destroying biomass
Intensity of stress: external constraints limiting rate of dry matter reproduction

117
Q

In the context of ecosystems, what is the difference between stress and disturbance?

A

Disturbance: short term, natural disasters ie: tornadoes, storms, disease, volcanic eruptions

Stress: long term, impacts the functioning of the ecosystem ie: limited water, increasing temperatures

118
Q

What are the four environmental extremes?

A
  1. Low disturbance: low stress
  2. low disturbance:high stress
  3. High disturbance: low stress
  4. high disturbance: high stress
119
Q

What are ruderals?

A

Highly disturbed habitats, low stress
- grow rapidly and produce seed quickly, comparable to r selection

120
Q

What form of selection are ruderals most comparable to?

A
  • r selection: grow rapidly and produce seeds quickly in areas of high disturbance
121
Q

What are the types of plants that exist in the environmental extremes?

A

ruderals, stress-tolerant, competitive

122
Q

What are stress tolerant plants?

A
  • areas of high stress, no distrubance
  • grow slowly to conserve resources, comparable to k selection
123
Q

What selection type are stress tolerant plants most comparable to?

A

K - selection, slow growing to conserve resources

124
Q

What are competitive species?

A
  • found in areas of low disturbance and low stress
  • grow well but eventually compete with others for resources
125
Q

What is a fundamental niche?

A
  • reflects environmental requirement of species in a ‘perfect world’
126
Q

What is the realized niche?

A
  • involves the interactions with other species
127
Q

What ecology studies does population ecology bridge?

A

-physiological and community ecology

128
Q

What are some real world applications of population ecology?

A
  • at the centre of many studies of species at risk with recovery plans often constructed using information learned
  • provides valuable insight in understanding and control of populations and invasive species
129
Q

What is a population? What are some define characteristics of a population?

A

a group of individuals of a single species inhabiting a specific area
- characterized by distribution, number of individuals, growth rates, etc.

130
Q

What is population density?

A
  • concentration of individuals within a species in a specific geographic locale
131
Q

What can influence the distribution of a species?

A
  • influenced by the occurrence of suitable environmental conditions
132
Q

What is spatial structure?

A
  • the pattern of density and spacing of individuals in a population
  • no single species can tolerate full earth’s environment
133
Q

What is a geographic range of a population?

A
  • the area that encompasses all individuals of a species
  • a measure of the total area covered by a population
134
Q

What might limit the distribution of a population and restrict its ability to colonize other suitable areas?

A
  • competition and predation can limit distribution
135
Q

What is a niche? What are the types?

A

An abstract concept representing the multidimensional conditions necessary for a species to persist
- fundamental and realized niche

136
Q

Describe the difference between a realized and fundamental niche

A

fundamental: the range of abiotic conditions under which a species can exist (conditions a species might live in if not for other species ) = potentially survive

Realized: the range of biotic and abiotic conditions under which a species actually persists: more rested conditions (smaller than fundamental niche)

137
Q

What are some limits to the fundamental niche? Why can’t a species live in its ideal conditions in the real world?

A
  • competitors, predators and pathogens may prevent a species from persisting in an area
138
Q

What are distribution limits?

A

Physical environment limits geographic distribution of a species as no species can tolerate all environment - can only handle so much variation in environment

139
Q

Describe the case study of Arctic terns and their distribution. how do they compensate for environmental variation?

A
  • arctic birds have annual migration from arctic ocean to Antartica - follow two summers
  • reasons related to the drop in temperature over winter

Migration: breeding reasons: breed in norther parts oc arctic ocean
feeding: travel to take advantage of food available in particular seasons

140
Q

What are the two reasons arctic terns may migrate?

A

Breeding areas and feeding areas

141
Q

Describe the migratory behaviour of case study : muskox populations

A
  • have traits that allows them to withstand extremely cold temperatures
  • fur coat with thick guard hair help protect insulating properties of the undercoat
  • remains in the arctic all year through migrate to higher elevations in the winter to avoid deep snow
  • this is how they compensate for environmental variation
142
Q

Describe the compensation strategies for environmental variation in the arctic tern and muskox populations

A

arctic tern: migrates in winter
muskox: develop thick fur to help them withstand cold

143
Q

Describe the compensation strategies for environmental conditions in blue whales

A

Winter: warm low tropical waters, breed/birth
Summer: cooler high polar waters (feeding)
- migratory - during which they eat nothing for 4 months living on body reserves

144
Q

Describe kangaroo distribution strategies

A
  • three largest kangaroo species in Australia have different distributions that are closely tied to climate
145
Q

What are some way climate can indirectly impact species distribution?

A

influences species distributions via food, water, habitat, parasites, pathogens, competitors

146
Q

BALANUS and CTHAMALUS

A
  • review case study: key point: competitive interaction with balanus is what excludes cthalamus from its fundamental niche
147
Q

What are the two types of distribution patterns?

A
  • small scale and large scale
148
Q

What are small scale distribution patterns?

A

Distance of no more than a few hundred meters over which there is little environmental change significant to organism

149
Q

What are large scale distribution patterns?

A
  • area over which substantial environmental change (and can change conditions of organism as well)
150
Q

What are the small scale patterns?

A
  • random, regular, clumped
151
Q

What are random patterns?

A
  • equal chance of being anywhere, uniform distribution of resources
152
Q

What are regular patterns?

A
  • uniformly spaced, exclusive use of areas, individuals avoid one another
  • due to antagonistic interactions
153
Q

What are clumped patterns?

A
  • unequal chance of being anywhere, mutual attraction between individuals (eg; wolf packs)
  • patchy resource distribution
154
Q

Why is the movement of individuals in a population important?

A

Moving between patches of habitats ensure the persistence of populations: they can adapt to resource availability etc.

155
Q

What does the population distribution refer to?

A

The size, shape, and location of the area it occupies

156
Q

Which conditions play a major role in geographic range?

A

Environmental conditions
- eg: maple trees

157
Q

What is the size of the fundamental niche and realized niche?

A

Fundamental niche: larger, realized niche: smaller

158
Q

When do species find their realized niche?

A

when their fundamental niche is exposed to abiotic and biotic interactions

159
Q

Is climate always the direct cause of distribution patterns?

A
  • no, climate often influences species disruption indirectly
160
Q

What is dispersion?

A

The spacing of individuals with respect to one another within the geographic range of a population
- random, regular, clumped

161
Q

What is dispersal?

A

The movement of individuals from one area to another
- dispersal allows species to colonize areas outside geographic range
- a way to avoid high competition or predation risk

162
Q

Why is it important to study ecology at a population level?

A
  • serves as a bridge between physiological and community ecology
  • At the centre of many studies of species at risk: recovery plants constructed
  • Provides valuable insight into the understanding and control of harmful invasive species
163
Q

Why are populations divided into local or subpopulations?

A
  • due to environmental heterogeneity
  • individuals can only occupy areas that can meet their requirements
164
Q

Why aren’t individuals distrusted evenly throughout the geographic range of a population?

A
  • because they can only occupy ares that meet their requirements
165
Q

What are subpopulations connected by? What is this?

A

Dispersal : Mechanisms by which individuals can move between suitable habitats

166
Q

What is a meta population?

A
  • a collection of local subpopulations as one linked population
  • a series of small separate populations in individual habitat patches that mutually affect one another
167
Q

Describe metapopulations

A
  • fragmented landscapes create fragmented populations many of which may exchange individuals via dispersal creating metapopulations
  • develop due to interactions between biology go the species and landscape upon which it lives
  • a series of small separate populations in individual patches that mutually affect on another
168
Q

What is one potential cause of fragmented landscapes?

A
  • human activity such as logging can lead to habitat fragmentation and can change population structure
169
Q

What are populations that persist in a balance between local extinction and colonization?

A
  • metapopulations:
  • local extinction of individuals can be recolonized from other patches
170
Q

Describe the basic information for the meta population of an alpine butterfly

A

The Rocky Mountain Parnassian butterfly
- extends from northern New Mexico to southwest Alaska
- host plant of caterpillars is sedum : found in alpine meadows
- tie to a narrow range of host plants –> populations are often distorted among habitat patches (form metapopulations)

171
Q

Describe the study on alpine butterflies AND the results please

A
  • a study focused on a series of 20 alpine meadows in rockies
  • meadows ranged from 0l8 to 20 ha (some adjacent, other separated)
  • Mark recapture techniques were used to estimate the size of subpopulations and dispersal behaviour
  • studies showed: average butterfly populations were more likely to leave small populations and disperse to larger populations
  • with forest encroachment into alpine meadows populations will likely decline
    IE: Larger meadows tend to support larger populations
172
Q

What was the result of the alpine butterfly experiment?

A
  • larger meadows tend to support larger populations
  • butterflies were more likely to leave small populations and disperse to large populations
173
Q

What 3 factors are the classification of commonness and rarity based on?

A
  1. geographic range of species: extreme vs. restricted
  2. Habitat tolerance: broad vs. narrow
  3. local population size: large vs. small
  • these 3 factors lead to 8 possible combinations: 7 include some attribute of rarity (I, II, III)
174
Q

what are the forms of rarity?

A

Rarity I, II, III

175
Q

What is rarity I?

A
  • extensive range, broad habitat tolerance, small local population
    –> e.g., peregrine falcon: broad geographic range but small density, driven to brink of extinction by DDT, saved by ban of DDT
    –> Eg., tiger: many small local populations, driven to extinction by hunting - now only series of small, fragmented populations
176
Q

Provide 2 examples of rarity 1?

A

tigers and peregrine falcons

177
Q

What it the relationship between extirpation and recolonization?

A
  • meta populations are populations persisting in a balance between extirpation (local extinction) and recolonization
178
Q

What are the 4 key points about meta populations?

A
  1. Metapopulations are a population of subpopulations
  2. the subpopulations are connected by movement of individuals from one subpopulation to another
  3. any subpopulation can go extinct and be re-colonized over time
  4. The risk of subpopulation extinction is generally greatest for small subpopulations which usually occur in small patches on the landscape
179
Q

What kinds of subpopulations have the greatest risk of extinction?

A
  • small subpopulations in small patches on landscape
180
Q

What are the 3 characteristics of a population least likely to go extinct?

A
  • extensive geographic range, broad habitat tolerance and some large local populations
181
Q

What is rarity II?

A

extensive - medium range, narrow habitat tolerance, large populations

eg; passenger pigeon: nested in large aggressions in virgin forests, logging of forests and hunting led to decline and last died in 1914

  • harelip sucker: common fish found n streams with rocks bottoms
  • habitats eliminated by silting of rivers and erosion following deforestation: last individual collected 1893
182
Q

What are the two examples used for rarity II?

A
  • passenger pigeon and harelip sucker
183
Q

What are the characteristics of Rarity III?

A
  • restricted range, narrow habitat tolerance, small populations (all 3 factors = extreme rarity)
  • eg; california condor, mountain gorilla, giant panda
  • many island species have these attributes: go extinct
184
Q

What is the relationship between population density and organism size?

A
  • population density declines as organisms size increases
  • ie: bacterial populations have 109 individual per cm^3, whereas large mammals and birds may be less than 1 individuals per km^2
185
Q

Do mammals or birds live at higher population densities?

A
  • mammals (weird)
186
Q

What are the 3 main methods of estimation?

A

–> Cohort life table: identify individuals born at same time and keep record from birth

–> Static life table: record age at death of individuals

–> Age distribution:
Calculate difference in proportion of individuals in each age class
- assumes differences in numbers form one age class to next due to mortality
- assumes population stable In size

187
Q

What is considered a fundamental descriptor of a population?

A
  • the pattern of survival and mortality among individuals in a population
188
Q

What is a survivorship curve?

A
  • summarises pattern of survival in a population
189
Q

What does population growth mean?

A
  • refers to how the number of individuals in a population increases or decreases with time
  • individuals added via birth and immigration
  • individuals removed via death and emigration
190
Q

What kind of population does immigration and emigration occur in?

A
  • open populations - does not occur in closed populations
191
Q

What is the relationship between growth rate and time?

A
  • the faster a populations growth rate the faster the population grows
192
Q

What does it mean when a population is growing geometrically? Exponentially? What shapes are their curves?

A
  • geometrically: when a population breeds seasonally (often once a year)
  • exponentially: species reproduce almost continuously and generations overlap
  • both have J shaped population growth curves
193
Q

Which model is used to describe how a population grows under limited resource conditions?

A
  • such growth is called logistic growth (s-shaped curve) - has carrying capacity
194
Q

What are BIDE dynamics?

A
  • population size changes as function of birth, death, emigration and immigration
  • Born, Immigrated, Died, Emigrated
195
Q

Describe the BIDE equation

A
196
Q

What are the limits to population growth?

A
  • environment limits population growth by altering birth and death rates
  • density dependant factors: disease, resource competition
  • density indépendant factors: natural disasters, weather
197
Q

Describe the environment, birth and death among Galapagos finches

A
  • medium ground finch was numerically domiannt
  • after drought population fell, food plants failed to produce seed crop
  • 10x normal rainfall led epilation to grow due to abundance of seed and cetrepillas
  • during heavy year of rainfall large abundance of seeds and caterpillars allows increased reproduction
198
Q

Describe the populations and precipitation of the Large Cactus Finch

A

During 1980s rosemary and Peter grants tracked larger cactus finch populations on the Galapagos island
- population numbers were correlated with precipitation
-rainfall impacted food supply, in turn impacted finch population number

199
Q

What are life tables used for?

A
  • used to track age-specific mortality rates and birth rates
200
Q

What is the fecundicity schedule?

A
  • birthrates for females of different ages
    fecundity: the ability to procure abundant healthy growth or offspring
201
Q

What is the net reproductive rate (R0) ?

A

Average number of offsetting produced by an individual in a population per generation

202
Q

What is the geometric and exponential population growth?

A
  • population growing at maximum rate produce J-shaped curve
  • due to density dependance / some population grow geometrically, other exponentially
203
Q

What is geometric growth?

A
  • growth by population with pulsed reproduction can be model as geometric population growth (non-overlapping generation)
  • successive generations differ in size by constant ratio
  • applies to organisms such as annual plants and insects with single generation per year
204
Q

How can growth be modelled when the generations do not overlap?

A
  • growth can be modelled geometrically
  • Nt = NoAlphat
205
Q

What is exponential growth?

A
  • populations with overlapping generations have continuous growth: can be modelled as exponential population growth
  • represents populations growth as continuous process
  • intrinsic rate of increase : per capita rate of increase under ideal environmental conditions
206
Q

What is the formula for exponential growth?

A

rate of population change = change in number / change in time

207
Q

For an exponential growth population, size and time can be calculated:

A
208
Q

Describe exponential growth in nature

A
  • pollen accumulation rate
  • whooping cranes: hunting and habitat destruction reduced to a single natural population - protection and intensive management of the population has left to dramatic recovery
209
Q

What are the two assumptions made about exponential growth?

A
  1. essential resources are limited
    2 environment is constant
    - under these assumptions birth and death rates are constant
    - the intrinsic rate of increased r is fully realized
210
Q

Why don’t the assumptions of exponential growth hold in the real world?

A
  • resources are limited and environments are variable
  • as population densities increase, demand for resources also increase
  • if the rate of consumption exceeds the rate at which resources are supplied, then resources will shrink (decreases fecundicity rate and increases mortality rate)
211
Q

Which factors change population size?

A
  • birth rates, death rates, immigration, emigration
212
Q

Which factors cause speciation?

A
  • ecological and physical processes combined with natural selection and genetic drift produce new species
213
Q

Why are K selected species often near their carrying capacity in the environment?

A
  • reproduce based on resources available: a lot = reproduce enough to use those resources, not enough: stop reproduction so there is enough
    = always near carrying capacity
214
Q

What kind of growth does an annual plant introduced to a new environment exhibit?

A
  • geometric growth
215
Q

Why is competition essential to natural systems?

A

Natural selection, niche specialization, population limitations, evolution

216
Q

What kind of competition was present in the white pine tree experiments?

A
  • interspecific and infraspecific: demonstrated by young white pines growing better and the vegetation in the experimental plots growing better
  • there was competition between trees and between trees and vegetation
217
Q

What is the difference between exploration and interference?

A
  • exploitation: Organisms compete indirectly through consumption of a limited resource ie: plants compete

Interference: individuals interact directly though physical force or intimation
- ritualized with aggressive behaviour associated with territoriality
- strong survive and take best territory and the weaker ones perish or take suboptimal territory

218
Q

What are the warning signs of a sparrows defence of territory?

A
  • matches intruders song
  • flaps wings : ‘flipping off’
  • if nothing else works attack!
219
Q

Which sparrows are more likely to have their territory encroached on by floaters?

A
  • juveniles and older males
220
Q

What was grimes theory on plant competition and productivity?

A
  • as productivity increases competition increases
221
Q

What was Newman and Tilmans theory ?

A

argued competition is generally constant, however competition for light increases and competition for soil resources decrease as productivity increases

222
Q

What is the relationship between biomass and plant density?

A
  • competition plays a role
  • more abundance.= self thinning, individual biomass decreases as overall biomass increases
  • less abundance: fewer plants, larger biomass
223
Q

What are the 4 kinds of competition?

A
  • interspecific, infraspecific, interference, exploitative
224
Q

What is the base equation for infraspecific and interspecific competition modelling?

A
  • the logistic model equation (dn/dt = rN (1-N/K)
  • modified for both
225
Q

What is the difference between the infraspecific mathematical model and the interspecific model?

A
  • infraspecific modifies the logistic equation to reflect only infraspecific competition and its impacts
  • interspecific takes into account the effect of species 2 on species 1 (and vice versa)
226
Q

How can you tell predict whether coexistence can occur?

A
  • using the single species logistic equation and the multiple species equation: whichever value is lower is favoured
  • if interspecific is lower then coexistence can occur!
227
Q

What affects a populations growth size in a single species logistic equation?

A
  • affected by the population size relative to its carrying capacity
  • K-N quantifies how far below carrying capacity the population is
228
Q

What decreases carrying capacity in the interspecific model ?

A
  • population size of species 1 and the competitive effect of species 2 on 1 time the population size
229
Q

When is coexistence possible according to isocline lines?

A
  • when the lines cross
230
Q

Which conditions permit stable coexistence?

A

K1 < K2 / effect of species 1on 2
and
K2 < K1 / effect of species 2 on 1

  • to hold, the competitive effect of each species on the other must be small
  • stable coexistence occurs when each species is more limited by its own carrying capacity compared to interspecific competition
231
Q

What was the results of the experiment with paramecia on competition?

A
  • grown alone carrying capacity determine by infraspecific competition
  • grown alone Aurelia and cautetum survives at low and high resource availability
  • grown together cautetum dies off
231
Q

How many graphs of isoclines are there? Know them and describe them

A

4 graphs

232
Q

What is the competitive exclusion principle?

A
  • two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely
233
Q

How can coexistence occur despite the competitive exclusion principle?

A
  • mechanisms:
  • spatial heterogeneity in strength of competition
  • variation in competitive ability within species
  • competitive equivalence
234
Q

Describe spatial heterogeneity’s impact on competition:

A

– competitive ability can be influenced by the abiotic environment

eg: flour beetles: one type survives better in dry conditions while the other survives better in moist conditions
- flour beetle completely excludes other in certain environments

235
Q

What does interspecific competition do to niches?

A
  • interspecific competition restricts the realized niches of both species to fewer environmental conditions

-

236
Q

What can the heterogeneity in an environment do to competition?

A
  • heterogeneity in environment can change competitive ability
237
Q

What are some potential impacts on niches due to competition?

A

Short term: can impact species distributions by restricting realized niches

  • long term: strong and pervasive competition may lead to evolutionary response by changing fundamental niches
238
Q
A

Biology Year 2 (3 decks)

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