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Board Exam Books > Earth Science (Chapter 17-20) > Flashcards

Earth Science (Chapter 17-20) Flashcards

Earth Science by Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa

1
Q

Ice is composed of water molecules that are held together by

A

mutual molecular attractions

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2
Q

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C

A

one calorie

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3
Q

Melting 1 gram of ice requires 80 calories, an amount referred to as

A

latent heat of melting

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4
Q

Freezing, the reverse process, releases these 80 calories per gram to the environment as

A

latent heat of fusion

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5
Q

Refers to the conversion of a solid directly to a gas, without passing through the liquid state.

A

Sublimation

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6
Q

the conversion of a vapor directly to a solid.

A

Deposition

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7
Q

other terms for frost

A

white frost or hoar frost

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8
Q

The general term for the amount of water vapor in air.

A

Humidity

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9
Q

A measure of the tendency of a material to change into the gaseous or vapour state, and it increases with temperature.

A

Vapor Pressure

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10
Q

When air holds as much water vapor as it can for a given temperature (100% relative humidity), it is said to be

A

Saturated

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11
Q

If saturated air is warmed, it can hold _____ water (relative humidity drops), which is why warm air is used to dry objects–it absorbs moisture.

A

more

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12
Q

Refers to the mass of water vapor in a unit of air compared to the remaining mass of dry air.

A

mixing ratio

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13
Q

formula for mixing ratio

A

mixing ratio = mass of water vapor (grams) / mass of dry air (kilograms)

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14
Q

Ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor content compared with the amount of water vapor required for saturation at that temperature (and pressure). Thus, relative humidity indicates how near the air is to saturation rather than the actual quantity of water vapor in the air.

A

Relative Humidity

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15
Q

When the relative humidity reaches 100 per cent, the air is?

A

saturated

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16
Q

a decrease in temperature results in an _____ in relative humidity

A

increase

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17
Q

Refers to the temperature to which a parcel of air would need to be cooled to reach saturation.

A

dew-point temperature, or simply the dew point

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18
Q

Relative humidity is commonly measured using

A

hygrometer

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19
Q

One type of hygrometer, called a _________, con sists of two identical thermometers mounted side by side. One thermometer, the dry-bulb thermometer, gives the current air temperature. The other, called the wet-bulb thermometer, has a thin muslin wick tied around the end.

A

psychrometer

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20
Q

This drop in tempera ture occurs even though heat is neither added nor subtracted. Such variations are known as __________ changes and result when air is compressed or allowed to expand.

A

adiabatic temperature

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21
Q

When air is allowed to expand, it _______, and when it is compressed, it _____.

A

cools, warms

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22
Q

As it expands, it cools adiabatically. Unsaturated air cools at a constant rate of ________ of ascent

A

10°C for every 1000 meters

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23
Q

Unsaturated air cools at a constant rate of 10°C for every 1000 meters of ascent. Conversely, descending air comes under increasingly higher pressures, compresses, and is heated 10°C for every 1000 meters of descent. This rate of cooling or heating applies only to unsaturated air and is known as the?

A

dry adiabatic rate

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24
Q

The amount of latent heat released depends on the quantity of moisture present in the air, the wet adiabatic rate varies from 5°C per 1000 meters for air with a high moisture content to 9°C per 1000 meters for dry air. This slower rate of cooling caused by the addition of latent heat is called the?

A

wet adiabatic rate of cooling.

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25
Q

Occurs when a mass of air is warmer and therefore less dense than the surrounding air.

A

convective lifting

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26
Q

Air is forced to rise over a mountainous barrier.

A

Orographic lifting

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27
Q

Warmer, less dense air is forced over cooler, denser air.

A

Frontal wedging

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28
Q

A pileup of horizontal airflow results in upward movement.

A

Convergence

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29
Q

Unequal surface heating causes localized pockets of air to rise because of their buoyancy.

A

Localized convective lifting

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30
Q

Refers to a patch of land that has become a desert because mountain ranges block much of the rainfall necessary for plant growth.

A

rain shadow desert

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31
Q

Occurs when masses of warm and cold air collide.

A

Front

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32
Q

In central North America, masses of warm and cold air collide, producing a front. Here the cooler, denser air acts as a barrier over which the warmer, less dense air rises. This pro cess, called

A

frontal wedging

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33
Q

rising parcels of warmer air

A

thermals

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34
Q

The phenomenon that produces rising thermals

A

localized convective lifting

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35
Q

If the parcel’s temperature is lower than that of the surrounding environment, it will be denser; if it is allowed to move freely, it will sink to its original position. Air of this type, called ______, resists vertical movement.

A

stable air

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36
Q

If, however, our imaginary rising parcel is warmer and hence less dense than the surrounding air, it will continue to rise until it reaches an altitude where its temperature equals that of its surroundings.

A

unstable air

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37
Q

Prevails when the environmental lapse rate is less than the wet adiabatic rate.

A

absolute stability

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38
Q

Air is said to exhibit ______ when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate.

A

absolute instability

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39
Q

This occurs when moist air has an environmental lapse rate between the dry and wet adiabatic rates (between 5°C and 10°C per 1000 meters).

A

conditional instability

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40
Q

Clouds that form are widespread and have little vertical thickness when compared to their horizontal dimension, and precipitation, if any, is light to moderate.

A

stable air

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41
Q

Clouds associated with the lifting of _____ are towering and often generate thunderstorms and occasionally even tornadoes.

A

unstable air

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42
Q

These are tiny bits of particulate matter that serve as surfaces for water-vapor condensation.

A

condensation nuclei

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43
Q

These are particularly good nuclei because they absorb water.

A

hygroscopic (hygro = moisture, scopic = to seek) nuclei

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44
Q

A good example of hygroscopic nuclei.

A

ocean salt

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45
Q

A form of condensation best described as visible aggregates of minute droplets of water or tiny crystals of ice.

A

clouds

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46
Q

Clouds are high, white, and thin. They can occur as patches or as delicate veil like sheets or extended wispy fibers that often have a feathery appearance.

A

Cirrus (cirrus = a curl of hair)

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47
Q

Clouds consist of indi vidual globular cloud masses. They normally exhibit a flat base and have the appearance of rising domes or towers. Such clouds are frequently described as hav ing a cauliflower structure.

A

Cumulus (cumulus = a pile)

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48
Q

Clouds are best described as sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky. While there may be minor breaks, there are no distinct individual cloud units.

A

Stratus (stratum = a layer)

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49
Q

High clouds normally have bases above

A

6000 meters

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50
Q

Middle clouds generally occupy heights from

A

2000 to 6000 meters

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51
Q

Low clouds form below

A

below 2000 meters

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52
Q

Defined as a cloud with its base at or very near the ground.

A

Fog

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53
Q

When warm, moist air moves over a cool surface, the result might be a blanket of fog called

A

Advection Fog

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54
Q

The foggiest location in the United States, and per haps in the world, is

A

Cape Disappointment, Washington

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55
Q

Forms on cool, clear, calm nights, when Earth’s surface cools rapidly by radiation.

A

Radiation fog

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56
Q

Created when relatively humid air moves up a gradually sloping plain or up the steep slopes of a mountain.

A

Upslope fog

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57
Q

When cool air moves over warm water, enough moisture may evaporate from the water surface to produce saturation. As the rising water vapor meets the cold air, it immediately re-condenses and rises with the air that is being warmed from below. Because the water has a steaming appearance, the phenomenon is

A

Steam fog

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58
Q

When frontal wedging occurs, warm air is lifted over colder air. If the resulting clouds yield rain, and the cold air below is near the dew point, enough rain will evaporate to produce fog. A fog formed in this man ner is called

A

Frontal fog, or precipitation fog

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59
Q

Refers to the precipitation from Cold Clouds

A

Bergeron process

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60
Q

Liquid water at temperatures below freezing is referred to as

A

supercooled

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61
Q

Refers to the precipitation from Warm Clouds

A

The Collision–Coalescence process

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62
Q

Fine, uniform drops of water having a diameter less than 0.5 millimeter (0.02 inch) are called

A

drizzle

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63
Q

Term referring to drops of water that fall from a cloud and have a diameter of at least 0.5 millimeter (0.02 inch).

A

rain

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64
Q

precipitation in the form of ice crystals (snowflakes) or, more often, aggregates of crystals.

A

snow

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65
Q

A wintertime phenomenon and refers to the fall of small particles of ice that are clear to translucent.

A

Sleet

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66
Q

Rain that becomes supercooled and freezes upon impact with cold surfaces. It forms when warm moist air flows over cold air at the surface.

A

Glaze (freezing rain)

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67
Q

Precipitation in the form of hard, rounded pellets or irreg ular lumps of ice.

A

Hail

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68
Q

Hail is produced only in large _______ clouds, where updrafts can sometimes reach speeds approaching 160 kilometers (100 miles) per hour and where there is an abundant supply of supercooled water.

A

cumulonimbus

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69
Q

Where did the 1987 hailstorm that killed more than 90 people happened?

A

Bangladesh

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70
Q

A deposit of ice crystals formed by the freezing of supercooled fog or cloud droplets on objects whose surface temperature is below freezing.

A

Rime

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71
Q

When the amount of rain is less than 0.025 centimeter, it is reported as a _____ of precipitation.

A

trace

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72
Q

Refers tothe return signal obtained by a radar system when the transmitted electromagnetic waves interact with targets, allowing the radar to determine the properties of those targets such as range, angle, and velocity.

A

Radar Echo

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73
Q

The echo is “brighter” when the precipitation is ______.

A

more intense

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74
Q

Average air pressure at sea level

A

1kg/cm^2

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75
Q

The unit measurement used for air pressure

A

millibar

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76
Q

Standard sea-level pressure

A

1013.2 millibars

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77
Q

A student of the famous Italian scientist Galileo, who invented the mercury barometer.

A

Torricelli

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78
Q

Standard atmos pheric pressure at sea level in inches of mercury

A

29.92 inHg

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79
Q

A smaller and more portable instrument for measuring air pressure where instead of having a mercury column held up by air pressure, it uses a partially evacuated metal chamber.

A

Aneroid barometer

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80
Q

Provides a con tinuous record of pressure changes with the passage of time.

A

barograph

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81
Q

Often associated with increasing cloudiness and the possibility of precipitation.

A

Falling pressure

82
Q

Air pressure that generally indicates clearing conditions.

A

Rising pressure

83
Q

Describes the result of horizontal differences in air pressure.

A

wind

84
Q

The ultimate energy source for most wind.

A

Solar energy

85
Q

lines connecting places of equal air pressure

A

isobars

86
Q

The spacing of the isobars indicates the amount of pres sure change occurring over a given distance and is called the?

A

pressure gradient force

87
Q

Closely spaced iso bars indicate a _____ pressure gradient and _____ winds.

A

steep pressure gradient and strong winds

88
Q

Widely spaced iso bars indicate a _____ pressure gradient and _____ winds.

A

weak pressure gradient and light winds

89
Q

Pressure gradient force is always directed at _____ angles to the isobars.

A

right angles

90
Q

The driving force of wind.

A

horizontal pressure gradient

91
Q

The wind that will be blowing parallel to the isobars, when Coriolis force isbalanced by the pressure gradient force.

A

Geostrophic wind

92
Q

These are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere, typically occurring around 30,000 feet (9,100 meters) in elevation.

A

Jet streams

93
Q

Within jet streams, the winds blow from _______, but the band often shifts north and south because jet streams follow the boundaries between hot and cold air.

A

west to east

94
Q

Near the equator, the rising air is associated with the pressure zone known as the _______. This region of ascending moist, hot air is marked by abundant precipitation.

A

equatorial low

95
Q

Because this region of low pressure is a zone where winds converge, it is also referred to as the

A

intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

96
Q

As the upper-level flow from the equatorial low reaches 20° to 30° latitude, north or south, it sinks back toward the surface. This subsidence and associated adiabatic heating produce hot, arid conditions. The center of this zone of subsiding dry air is the _________, which encircles the globe near 30° latitude, north and south.

A

subtropical high

97
Q

At the surface, airflow is outward from the center of the subtropical high. Some of the air travels equatorward and is deflected by the Coriolis effect, producing the reliable

A

trade winds

98
Q

The remainder travels poleward and is also deflected, generating the prevailing _______ of the midlatitudes.

A

westerlies

99
Q

As the westerlies move poleward, they encounter the cool _______ in the region of the ___________.

A

polar easterlies; subpolar low

100
Q

The interaction of these warm and cool winds produces the stormy belt known as the __________.

A

polar front

101
Q

The source region for the variable polar easterlies

A

polar high

102
Q

seasonal changes in wind direction

A

monsoons

103
Q

develops because cooler air over the water (higher pressure) moves toward the warmer land (lower pressure)

A

sea breeze

104
Q

A local wind system characterized by a flow from land to water late at night.

A

land breeze

105
Q

In the morning, the air in the mountain tops warms quicker than the air in the valleys. Warm air rises and the cooler valley air moves up the mountain slopes to form a

A

valley breeze

106
Q

The process reverses in the evening. The air on the mountain tops cools faster than that in the valleys. Warmer air in the valley rises, and the cooler air on the mountain tops moves downslope to take its place. This breeze is called

A

mountain breeze

107
Q

Such winds are often created when a strong pressure gradient develops in a mountainous region. As the air descends the leeward slopes of the mountains, it is heated adiabatically (by compression).

A

chinooks (foehn) winds

108
Q

Two basic wind measurements

A

direction and speed

109
Q

A wind measuring device used for determining both direction and speed of the wind.

A

wind sock

110
Q

The instrument most commonly used to determine wind direction

A

wind vane

111
Q

Wind speed is commonly measured using

A

cup anemometer

112
Q

When the wind consistently blows more often from one direction than from any other, it is called a?

A

prevailing wind

113
Q

These periods of abnormal warming happen at irregular intervals of 2 to 7 years and usually persist for spans of 9 months to 2 years.

A

El Niño

114
Q

An event is associated with colder-than-average surface temperatures in the eastern Pacific. It is linked to strong trade winds, a strong westward-moving equatorial current, and a strong Peru Current with significant coastal upwelling.

A

La Niña

115
Q

An ocean flow that encourages upwelling of cold, nutrient-filled waters that serve as the primary food source for millions of small feeder fish, particularly anchovies.

A

Peru Current

116
Q

El Niño and La Niña events are part of the global circulation and are related to a seesaw pattern of atmospheric pressure be tween the eastern and western Pacific called the ____________.

A

Southern Oscillation

117
Q

The 10 largest deserts in the world are

A

Antarctic - 5.5 million square miles
Arctic (Canada - Russia) - 5.4 million square miles
Sahara (Africa) - 3.5 million square miles
Arabian (Middle East) - 1.0 million square miles
Gobi (Middle East - Mongolia & China) - 0.5 million square miles
Patagonian (South America) - 0.26 million square miles
Great Victoria (Australia) - 0.25 million square miles
Kalahari (Africa) - 0.22 million square miles
Great Basin (United States) - 0.19 million square miles
Syrian (Middle East) - 0.19 million square miles

118
Q

In general, regions influenced by high pressure, with its associated subsidence and divergent winds, experience _______ conditions.

A

dry conditions

119
Q

Regions under the influence of low pressure and its converg ing winds and ascending air ________.

A

receive ample precipitation

120
Q

Refers to an immense body of air, usually 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) or more across and perhaps several kilometers thick, that is characterized by a similarity of temperature and moisture at any given altitude.

A

Air mass

121
Q

Continental polar air masses originate in _____, ______, and ________ —areas that are uniformly cold and dry in winter and cool and dry in summer.

A

northern Canada, interior Alaska, and the Arctic

122
Q

Occurs when cold air, often originating from Canada, moves across the open waters of the Great Lakes. As the cold air passes over the unfrozen and relatively warm waters of the Great Lakes, warmth and moisture are transferred into the lowest portion of the atmosphere.

A

lake-effect snows

123
Q

A storm along the East Coast of North America, so called because the winds over the coastal area are typically from the northeast.

A

nor’easter

124
Q

Which air mass is associated with lake-effect snow?

A

Continental polar (cP)

125
Q

These are boundaries that separate different air masses, one warmer than the other and often having a higher moisture content.

A

Fronts

126
Q

A term that is generally applied to warmer air gliding up along a colder air mass.

A

overrunning

127
Q

When the surface position of a front moves so that warm air occupies territory formerly covered by cooler air, it is called

A

warm front

128
Q

Occasionally, the flow on both sides of a front is neither toward the cold air mass nor toward the warm air mass but almost parallel to the line of the front. Thus, the surface posi tion of the front does not move.

A

stationary front

129
Q

An active cold front that overtakes a warm front. As the advancing cold air wedges the warm front upward, a new front emerges between the advancing cold air and the air over which the warm front is gliding.

A

occluded front

130
Q

As early as the 1800s, it was known that ___________ were the bearers of precipitation and severe weather.

A

middle-latitude cyclones

131
Q

This term simply refers to the circulation around any low-pressure center, no matter how large or intense it is.

A

cyclone

132
Q

Sometimes called twisters or cyclones, are violent windstorms that take the form of a rotating column of air, or vortex.

A

Tornadoes

133
Q

maximum wind for strong tornadoes

A

480km/hr

134
Q

A tornado may consist of a single vortex, but within many stronger tornadoes are smaller whirls called _______ that rotate within the main vortex.

A

suction vortices

135
Q

The most intense tornadoes are usually those that form in association with huge thunderstorms called

A

supercells

136
Q

A vertical cylinder of rotating air, typically about 3 to 10 kilometers (2 to 6 miles) across, that develops in the updraft of a severe thunderstorm.

A

mesocyclone

137
Q

The commonly used guide to tornado intensity

A

Enhanced Fujita intensity scale or EF-scale

138
Q

Its mission is to provide timely and accurate forecasts and watches for severe thunderstorms and tornadoes.

A

Storm Prediction Center (SPC)

139
Q

NWS stands for?

A

National Weather Service

140
Q

NCEP stands for?

A

National Centers for Environmental Prediction

141
Q

Many of the difficulties that once limited the accuracy of tornado warnings have been reduced or eliminated by an advancement in radar technology called

A

Doppler radar

142
Q

Refers to the intense rotating wind system in the lower part of a thunderstorm that frequently precedes tornado development.

A

mesocyclone

143
Q

These are intense centers of low pressure that form over tropical oceans and are characterized by intense convective (thunderstorm) activity and strong cyclonic circulation.

A

Hurricanes

144
Q

Most hurricanes form between the latitudes of ____ and ____ over all the tropical oceans except the South Atlantic and the eastern South Pacific

A

5° and 20°

145
Q

Hurricanes do not develop within about 5° of the equator because the Coriolis effect is too weak. TRUE OR FALSE

A

TRUE

146
Q

This doughnut-shaped wall of intense convective activity surrounding the center of the storm is called the _____. It is here that the greatest wind speeds and heaviest rainfall occur.

A

eye wall

147
Q

This well-known feature is a zone about 20 kilometers (12.5 miles) in diameter where precipitation ceases and winds subside.

A

eye of the hurricane

148
Q

warmest part of the storm

A

eye

149
Q

Refers to a dome of water 65 to 80 kilometers (40 to 50 miles) wide that sweeps across the coast near the point where the eye makes landfall.

A

storm surge

150
Q

Involves the exchanges of energy and moisture that occur among the five spheres.

A

climate system

151
Q

One of the first attempts at climate classification was made by the ancient Greeks, who divided each hemisphere into three zones:

A

torrid, temperate, and frigid

152
Q

Tropic of Cancer

A

23.5° north

153
Q

Tropic of Capricorn

A

23.5° south

154
Q

Arctic Circle

A

66.5° north

155
Q

Antarctic Circle

A

66.5° south

156
Q

A tool for presenting the general world pattern of climates that has been the best-known and most used system for decades.

A

Köppen classification

157
Q

Who devised the Köppen classification?

A

Russian born German climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940)

158
Q

Winterless climates; all months have a mean temperature above 18°C (64°F).

A

Humid tropical

159
Q

Climates where evaporation exceeds precipita tion; there is a constant water deficiency.

A

Dry

160
Q

The average temperature of the coldest month is below 18°C (64°F) but above –3°C (27°F).

A

Humid middle-latitude, mild winters

161
Q

The aver age temperature of the coldest month is below –3°C (27°F), and the warmest monthly mean exceeds 10°C (50°F).

A

Humid middle-latitude, severe winters

162
Q

Summerless climates; the average temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F).

A

Polar

163
Q

Within the A group of climates, two main types are recognized:

A

wet tropical climates (Af and Am) and tropical wet and dry (Aw)

164
Q

Af, Am, and Aw stands for?

A

Tropical wet (Af), Tropical monsoon (Am), and Tropical savanna (Aw)

165
Q

The Philippines is under what type of climates?

A

Tropical wet (Af) and Tropical monsoon (Am)

166
Q

Unexcelled in luxuriance and characterized by hundreds of different species per square kilometer, it is a broadleaf evergreen forest that dominates the wet tropics.

A

tropical rain forest

167
Q

The intensity of solar radiation is consistently high. The vertical rays of the Sun are always relatively close, and changes in the length of daylight throughout the year are slight; therefore, seasonal tempera ture variations are minimal.

A

Wet tropical climates (typically extends 5° to 10° into each hemisphere)

168
Q

A tropical grassland with scattered drought-tolerant trees.

A

savanna

169
Q

Example of Aw regions.

A

India, Southeast Asia, and portions of Australia

170
Q

Within the regions defined by a general water deficiency (B climates) are two climatic types:

A

arid or desert (BW) and semiarid or steppe (BS)

171
Q

To establish the boundary between dry and humid cli mates, the Köppen classification uses formulas that involve three variables:

A

average annual precipitation, average annual temperature, and seasonal distribution of precipitation

172
Q

The mountain barriers of North America.

A

Coast Ranges, Sierra Nevada, and Cascades

173
Q

The mountain barrier in Asia which prevents the summertime monsoon flow of moist Indian Ocean air from reaching the interior.

A

Asia

174
Q

At least 10 times as much precipitation in a summer month as in the driest winter month. Warmest month is over 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C.

A

Cwa

175
Q

At least 10 times as much precipitation in a summer month as in the driest winter month. No month above 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C.

A

Cwb

176
Q

At least three times as much precipitation in a winter month as in the driest summer month; precipitation in driest summer month less than 4 cm. Warmest month is over 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C.

A

Csa

177
Q

At least three times as much precipitation in a winter month as in the driest summer month; precipitation in driest summer month less than 4 cm. Warmest month is over 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C. No month above 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C.

A

Csb

178
Q

Criteria for w and s cannot be met. Warmest month is over 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C.

A

Cfa

179
Q

Criteria for w and s cannot be met. No month above 22°C; at least 4 months over 10°C.

A

Cfb

180
Q

Criteria for w and s cannot be met. One to 3 months above 10°C.

A

Cfc

181
Q

Other term used to describe dry-summer climate.

A

Mediterranean climate

182
Q

Two types of D climates are recognized:

A

humid continental (Dfa, Dwa, Dfb, amd Dwb) and the subarctic climates (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd)

183
Q

It is confined to the central and eastern portions of North America and Eurasia in the latitude range between approximately 40° and 50° north latitude.

A

humid continental climate

184
Q

It is often referred to as the taiga climate, for its extent closely corresponds to the northern coniferous forest region of the same name.

A

subarctic climate

185
Q

Two types of polar climates are recognized:

A

Tundra (ET) and Ice Cap (EF)

186
Q

Refers to a treeless climate having at least one month whose average temperature is above 0 °C (32 °F) and is found almost exclusively in the Northern Hemisphere.

A

Tundra

187
Q

It does not have a single monthly mean above 0°C (32°F) and covers a surprisingly large area of more than 15.5 million square kilometers (6 million square miles), or about 9 percent of Earth’s land area. It is confined to the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica

A

Ice Caps

188
Q

An American research facility. Among the phenomena that are monitored there are variations in atmospheric composition.

A

Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station

189
Q

Carbon dioxide (CO2) repre sents only about_______ percent (____ parts per million) of the gases that make up clean, dry air.

A

0.0397 percent (397 parts per million)

190
Q

Earth’s tremendous industrialization of the past two centuries has been fueled—and still is fueled—by burning fos sil fuels:

A

coal, natural gas, and petroleum

191
Q

IPCC means

A

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

192
Q

When we consider the 132-year span for which there are instrumental records (since 1880), the 10 warmest years have all occurred since

A

1998

193
Q

The trace gases that are most important are

A

methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

194
Q

Produced by anaerobic bacteria in wet places, where oxygen is scarce. (Anaerobic means “without air,” specifically oxygen.) Such places include swamps, bogs, wetlands, and the guts of termites and grazing animals such as cattle and sheep.

A

methane

195
Q

They are based on fundamental laws of physics and chemistry and incorporate human and biological interactions. The models simulate many variables, including temperature, rainfall, snow cover, soil moisture, winds, clouds, sea ice, and ocean circulation over the entire globe through the seasons and over spans of decades.

A

general circulation models (GCMs)

196
Q

Sources of aerosols.

A

dust storms and volcanoes

197
Q

One category of aerosols, called _______, is soot generated by combustion processes and fires. Unlike most other aerosols, it warms the atmosphere because it is an effective absorber of incoming solar radiation.

A

black carbon

198
Q

Research indicates that sea level has risen about ___ centimeters (____ inches) since 1870.

A

25 centimeters (9.75 inches)

199
Q

How is a warmer atmosphere related to a rise in sea level? One significant factor is ____________.

A

thermal expansion

200
Q

permanently frozen subsoil

A

permafrost

201
Q

These climate-feedback mechanisms are called _________ if they reinforce the initial change.

A

positive-feedback mechanisms

202
Q

These climate-feedback mechanisms are called _________ if they counteract the initial effect.

A

negative-feedback mechanisms

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