DOMAIN I: Competency 2

Question 1

the process by which people learn a second language.

Answer 1

second-language acquisition, second-language learning, or L2 (language 2) **acquisition

Question 2

the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process.

Answer 2

second-language acquisition (SLA)

Question 3

the type of language produced by second-language learners who are in the process of learning a language.

in this process, learners’ errors are caused by such phenomena as borrowing patterns from the mother tongue, extending patterns from the target language, and expressing meanings using the vocabulary and syntax which are already known.

Answer 3

interlanguage or learner language

Question 4

refers to spelling phonetically (i.e., spelling teacher “techr”), is common in developing a language.

it demonstrates that students are learning certain rules and are closer to approaching actual spelling.

Answer 4

invented spelling

Question 5

Watson and B.F. Skinner
KEY TERMS: stimulus-response-reward (SRR), audio-lingual method
In the 50s, behavioral psychology (operant conditioning) was applied to language learning. the student’s verbal behavior is being “condition” and the stimulus is the new language and the response is the learner’s reaction to the stimuli.
reinforcement or reward is approval or praise learner receives.
Skinner asserts that individuals learn language as a direct response to stimuli. so, since humans’ brains are “blank slates,” they can learn language through dialogue practice and drills (habit formation). meaning is excluded.

SLA THEORY

Answer 5

behaviorist theory

Question 6

N. Chomsky/Krashen
KEY TERMS: universal grammar (we are born with a set of rules about language in our heads.)
viwes that is acquired through a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which is the brain’s innate ‘Grammar Template’ for picking up and using language. children hear a language, hypothesize about the rules, test the rules, and modify when they find variations.

SLA THEORY

Answer 6

nativist theory

Question 7

J. Piaget
KEY TERMS: notion of readiness or cognitive stage of learning
views human beings as having innate capacity to develop logical thinking. second language learning has its stages of development; Pre-Production, Early Production, Speech Emergence, Intermediate Fluency, and Advance Fluency.
they say that the conditions for learning language are the same conditions that are necessary for any kind of learning. the environment including caretakers provides the materical that the child can work on.

SLA THEORY

Answer 7

cognitivist theory

Question 8

J. Bruner
KEY TERMS: discovery learning, language acquisition support system (LASS)
the idea of building upon previous knowledge and experience to construct their own understanding of learning.
the concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach).
the role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to faciliate the learning process.
Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding.

SLA THEORY

Answer 8

constructivist theory

Question 9

Vygotsky
KEY TERMS: collaborative learning
argues that the way a person learns a language is both biological and social.
people are born with brains predisposed with the ability to learn language and to communicate. caretakers provide the linguistic exposure they need to learn a language.
interactionists believe that language is byproduct of children’s social interactions with the important people in their lives.

SLA THEORY

Answer 9

social interactionist theory

Question 10

• 1950s (B.F. Skinner)
• mind is a blank slate
• stimulus-response-reward (SRR) “operant conditioning”
• practice and drill is required
• language is learned

SLA THEORY

Answer 10

behaviorist theory

Question 11

• 1960s (Chomsky)
• mind is prewired to learn language
• language acquisition device (LAD) “grammar template”
• language is acquired

SLA THEORY

Answer 11

nativist theory

Question 12

• 1970-80s (Piaget)
• mind has innateness for logical thinking and learning language
• environment conditions should enhance learning at developmental stages

SLA THEORY

Answer 12

cognitivist theory

Question 13

• 1990s-present (Bruner, Vygotsky)
• language is a social tool
• social interaction is necessary to communication
• “authentic learning” is critical

SLA THEORY

Answer 13

constructivist and social interactionist theory

Question 14

as the learner develops skills and competence in L2, e/she begins to correct and modify his/her speech to conform to the model speech and written language of native speakers of the target language.

APPLICATION:
* communicative competency
* students applying a ‘monitor’ to their language need to be given extended wait time.

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

Answer 14

monitor hypothesis

Question 15

factors of motivation, interpersonal acceptance and self-esteem can enhance or limit the speed and levels of L2 learned. there exists a “fliter” or “mental block the impeded L2 from “getting in.”pedagogically, the more that is done to lower the fliter, the more language acquisition can take place.

APPLICATION:
* create a safe, welcoming environment in which students can learn.
* classroom decor, arrangement of desks, music, emotional environment, a sense of security, and the strategies the teacher employs contribute to ELL student success.

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

Answer 15

affective filter hypothesis

Question 16

linguistic forms emerge in L2 acquisition in much the same predictable order as they do in L1. this is what makes language assessment possible. it also calls into the question the “grammer syllabus.” language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages, not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning.

APPLICATION:
* language structures should be taught in an order that is conductive to learning.
* introducing language concepts that are relatively easy for learners to acquire and then use scaffolding to introduce more difficult concepts.

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

Answer 16

natural order hypothesis

Question 17

the learner can only acquire or learn language he/she can understand by connecting it to prior knowledge and known concepts. language that is not understood is just “L2 noise.” although input must be comprehensible, language that contains forms one level of linguistic complexity beyond the learner’s level provides a challenge to develop L2 proficiency.
thus, the i+1 concept, where i= the stage of acquisition.

APPLICATION:
* create a more effective opportunity for language acquisition by giving students lots of context clues, visual aids, and gestures when speaking above a student’s level.

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

Answer 17

input hypothesis

Question 18

one acquires or “picks up” a second language in much the same way as one acquired L1, by using it. formal instruction is distinct from acquisition and may be helpful, but is not essential to learning a second language.

APPLICATION:
* the optimal way a language is learned is through natural communication.
* create a situation wherein language is used in order to fulfill authentic purposes.
* this will help students to ‘acquire’ the language instead of just ‘learning’ it.

Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

Answer 18

acquisition-learning hypothesis

Question 19

there are threshold levels of linguistic competence which a bilingual child must attain both in order to avoid cognitive disadvantages and allow the potentially beneficial aspects of bilingualism to influence his/her congitive and academic functioning.
* subtractice bilingualism: (found in ESL programs and Bilingual Early Exit programs), which is the loss that may lead to cognitive deficiency in L2.
* additive bilingualism: (found in Dual Language Programs), or continued cognitive development in L1 while mastering L2, provides the greatest potential for successful development of full proficiency in L2.

Cummins’ SLA Theories

Answer 19

linguistic threshold hypothesis

Question 20

• ELLs have cognitive and linguistic abilities.
• L1 background serves as the basis for schemata of L2.
• If ELLs know the concept in L1, it will be easier to transfer in L2.

Cummins’ SLA Theories

Answer 20

common underlying proficiency (CUP)/transferability theory

Question 21

L1 proficiency and L2 proficiency are separate and not connected at all. this assumes that skills and content learned through the primary language do not transfer to the second language.
* the opposing theory of CUP.

Answer 21

separate underlying proficiency (SUP)

Question 22

not the first language; “getting in the way” of second language skills.
rather, it is the result of the performer “falling back” on old knowledge when he/she has not yet acquired enough of the second language.

Answer 22

interference

Question 23

includes the use of complete sentences, phrases, and borrowed words from another language.

“I go to my casa to see my padres.”

Answer 23

code-switching

Question 24

between L1 and L2 in several areas: phonemic awareness; decoding through phonics and word recognition strategies; use of cognates and general comprehension strategies.
explicit instruction in linguistic parallels and contrasts is helpful to improve reading and writing skills of ELLs.
this provides an “inner speech” or the skill of internalizing language.

Answer 24

+positive transfer

Question 25

in developing biliteracy skills, ELLs apply L1 spellings to english words.
ELLs: use L1 spelling approximations for english phonemes that do not exist in L1. they collapse english vowels into L1 vowels, dipthongs or consonant blends.

Answer 25

-negative transfer

Question 26

a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. the comparison made is between the errors a learner makes producing the target language and the target language itself.
errors provide evidence of a system (learners attempt to figure out system). this evidence can provide information on the state of a learner’s knowledge of the L2.

Answer 26

error analysis

Question 27

a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.
the ultimate goal is to predict areas that will be either easy or difficult for learners.

Answer 27

contrastive analysis

Question 28

at some point in the learner’s path of development, no futher learning appears possible, with their performance apparently impervious to both further exposure to the L2 and explicit correction of errors. because the L2 now appears ‘set in stone.’
students who have been recieving ESL services for more than 5-7 years may have “fossilized.”

Answer 28

fossilization

Question 29

the result of the normal process of second language acquisition, and its impact on the development of the second language.

Answer 29

language difference

Question 30

characterized by deficits in language comprehension and/or production in both the native language and the second language.

Answer 30

language disorder