Doing Psychology Flashcards
Quantitative Methods
focus on development and testing of explicit (formal) theories which can be used to make mathematical predications which can be tested by collecting and analysing data.
Qualitative methods
focus on development of verbal theories (more open ended and explanatory)
What is the goal of the quantitative method?
The development of formal theories that can be tested
What is a theory?
A principle (or set of principles) that explain a body of facts. A good theory is one that specifies the (causal) relation between states.
- goal = understanding
- often expressed as an explanation of a system
- must predict or it is not useful.
It is NOT a description, set of data or a diagram
Science of the mind (David Marr, 1980) - 3 answers to ‘how does it (the mind) work?’
In order to understand a system (or model), you must be able to describe it on all three of these levels:
- Computational Theory
- Representation and Algorithm
- Physical implementation
- Computational Theory (of the mind)
What is the problem being solved?
- what are the constraints on the solution?
- what is the nature of the problem/function being computed
(Usually a mathematical expression)
- Representation and Algorithm (of the mind)
How are we solving the problem?
- what info does the system represent?
- how is it being represented?
- what is the input/output?
- what are the steps in between?
Generally, we study cognition at this level as level 1 is too abstract and level 3 is too complex
- Physical implementation (of the mind)
How is this (the problem/solution) realised in the physical brain?
- how are the representations and algorithms realised in the hardware device (the brain) itself?
- Computational theory (of a model)
Specifies a function mapping input state to output state - what are the mechanisms?
does not say ‘how’ the input to output occurs
- Representation and Algorithm (of a model)
specifies representations for input and output (e.g. content and format) - precise series of operations
- Physical Implementation (of a model)
how does the model occur in the real world?
how could it be implemented or understood?
Process models
these models are most common in cognitive and behavioural neuroscience. There are two broad classes:
- symbolic
- connectionist
Symbolic (process) models
Symbolic Representations
Symbolic data structures have basic (or atomic) elements and rules for composing elements to make more complex structures e.g. words and grammatical rules. Any variable is a legal proposition which can be combined by an operator.
Symbolic Processes
We can apply symbolic rules or operations to a data set. In general, cognition is treated like a traditional computer programme (variables and operators run to produce an outcome).
Production systems (symbolic models)
Production systems are prototypical symbolic models with three components:
1. data base = the knowledge the system has
2. inference rules = rules the system knows e.g. if x is larger it is heavier (the rules can produce incorrect answers)
3. executive control structure = how the data base and the rules interact/ decides which rules fire when / requires a specific algorithm
Operation of a production system (symbolic models)
Current state = current contents of the database/facts known about the system e.g. current state of a chess board
State space = the set of all possible states e.g. all legal pieces on chess board
Goal state = the state you want your database to be in e.g. check mate
State transition = moving from one state to another
Search = algorithm for travelling the state space and finding the best path for moving from the current state to the goal state (decide which rules fire in which order)
Advantages of Symbolic models
- computational power
- define ‘variable’-ised and universally quantified rules
- if you can represent your variables you can reason about them
Disadvantages of Symbolic models
- often too rigid to capture human behaviour (fails to capture shades of meaning/we don’t always apply a rule we know)
- how are structured representations learned? new representations are combinations of existing representations so where do the originals come from?
- how are rules learnt?
- no graceful degradation with damage (brains can function when damaged, computers can’t)
- no obvious neural implementation
Connectionist (process) models
Models comprised of networks of interconnected nodes. Nodes are simple processors that mimic neurons. connections are weights between nodes.
Representations = patterns of activation on nodes
Processing = nodes pass activation over weighted connection (positive weights are excitatory connections)
Node activation (connectionist models)
Node activation = sum of node’s weight * activation
Advantages of connectionist models
- flexible processing (parallel constraints)
- flexible representations (semantically rich/permits automatic generalisation)
- graceful degradation with damage
- transparent neural implementation (easy to see how the brain does these things)
Disadvantages of connectionist models
- not symbolic
- ability to generalise depends on similarity of experiences
- cannot represent or use ‘variable’-ised rules
- can generalise dissimilar examples
what is a vulnerable group?
Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups act 2006 defines groups as vulnerable based on the ways they are:
- marginalised
- socially excluded
- limited opportunity
- suffer abuse/hardship/prejudice/discrimination etc.
what is diplomacy?
the art of dealing with people in a sensitive and tactful way.
tact-diplomacy model:
- encode and formulate = clarity/build rapport
- decode and translate = listen actively
- be polite
- timing
- message = relevant audience/relationship/power dynamic
Advantages of qualitative research interviews
- allow participants to use their own words
- rich data
- can open new areas of research that might not have been considered
Structured interview (quantitative)
interview has a schedule with a fixed set of questions (mostly answers with categories)
- fixed order of questions
- no prompting
- more formal
semi-structured interview (qualitative)
interview has a schedule that is used as a guide
- order of questions can be adapted to fit the interview
- prompting and improvising are allowed
- more informal/build a rapport
unstructured interview (qualitative)
interview schedule does not need to be followed and doesn’t give specific questions
- probing and follow up questions are allowed
- allows interviewee to direct the interview
focus groups
sometimes referred to as group interviews - researcher acts as a moderator with a flexible schedule
ethical considerations
- research must be up to professional codes and guidelines
- must obtain consent from institutions and participants
- provide an info sheet about you research
- ensure: right to withdraw, informed consent, anonymity, protection of participants and researcher etc.
Orthographic transcription
transcription of what was said word-for-word
includes:
- thematic analysis
- grounded theory
- interpretative phenomenological analysis
- narrative analysis
Jefferson transcription
transcription including markers for pauses/expression etc.
includes:
- discursive psychology
- conversation analysis
thematic analysis
qualitative analysis method = what key themes are apparent.
uses purposive sampling
approaches in TA:
- realist = about attitudes/beliefs/experiences
- critical realist = about the meaning people give to their experiences
- social constructionist = about representations of subjects
steps in TA:
1. familiarise yourself with the data
2. generate initial codes
3. search for themes
4. review themes
5. define themes
6. produce the analysis
grounded theory
qualitative analysis method = interested in psychological processes / aims to develop theories grounded in the data
- social constructivist approach
Steps in GT:
1. Initial analysis
2. Focused coding
3. Memo writing (explain each coding category) - this leads to theoretical sampling
pitfalls in GT:
- ignoring previous literature
- producing under-analysis
- not following methodological steps adequately
Interpretative phenomenological analysis
analysis of lived experiences = what it means to people to have certain experiences
uses purposive sampling and smaller samples
Steps in IPA:
1. read/re-read the first standpoint, make notes in margin
2. develop themes and concepts from the notes
3. find relation of themes/concepts
4. produce a summary table of the analysis
