DNA (fuck) Flashcards by Madison Ray | Brainscape

Q

Frederick Griffith

A

1928

Living bacteria get “transformed” by dead bacteria

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Q

Hershey and Chase

A

1952

Radioactivity, bacteria and viruses prove DNA is genetic material

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Q

Nucleotide

A

the monomer unit of DNA and RNA

contains- nitrogenous base, 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group

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Q

DNA and RNA are…

A

polymers of nucleotide

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Q

backbone

A

made of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules, bonded covalently

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Q

N-Bases __________ from sugars

A

extend

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Q

DNA sugar

A

deoxyribose

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Q

RNA sugar

A

ribose

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Q

What takes place when forming the bond

A

dehydration reaction

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Q

Franklin and Wilkins

A

X-ray crystallography reveals the shape of DNA molecule

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Q

Franklin and Wilkins found out that the DNA molecule’s shape is a __________________.

A

double helix

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Q

Watson and Crick

A

credited with discovery of DNA structure in 1953 after seeing Franklin’s x-ray

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Q

Chargaff

A

discovers base pairing law

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Q

Base pairing law (Chargaff’s law)

A

A=T

G=C

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Q

Thymine and cytosine are _________________.

A

pyrimidines

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Q

Adenine and Guanine are _________________.

A

purines

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Q

DNA

A

two polynucleotide chains joined by hydrogen bonding between N-bases, twisted in a helical shape

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Q

The ___________________ backbone is on the outside.

A

sugar-phosphate

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Q

The nitrogenous bases are ______________________ to the backbone in the interior.

A

perpendicular

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Q

Replication must take place before ______________.

A

cell division

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Q

DNA replication is ______________________.

A

semiconservative

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Q

semiconservative

A

Each resulting piece is half old, half new

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Q

DNA opens to produce a ____________

A

bubble

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Q

Replications proceeds in both….

A

directions

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Q

when bubbles merge

A

replication ends

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Q

DNA strands are ____________________

A

antiparallel

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Q

antiparallel

A

run in opposite direction

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Q

DNA helicase

A

unwinds and unzips DNA molecule

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Q

DNA polymerase

A

adds nucleotides to a growing chain

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Q

DNA ligase

A

joins small fragments into a continuous chain

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Q

DNA vs RNA

A

RNA never has paired nucleotides

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Q

mRNA (messenger)

A

takes message from nucleus to cytoplasm

carries only one protein worth of information

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Q

rRNA (ribosomal)

A

composes ribosome subunits

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Q

gene

A

a unit of heredity information that directs the synthesis of a specific protein

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Q

protein syntesis

A

the production of a polypeptide chain from a DNA sequence

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Q

transcription

A

DNA to mRNA (same language), in nucleus

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Q

translation

A

mRNA to protein (diff. language), in cytoplasm on ribosome

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Q

Transcription // step 1

A

DNA molecule is unzipped

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Q

Transcription // step 2

A

mRNA molecule is produced

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Q

elongation // with step 2 of transcription

A

RNA polymerase catalyzes reaction

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Q

Transcription // step 3

A

mRNA molecule leaves nucleus, DNA zips

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Q

Transcription // step 4

A

mRNA associates with ribosome

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Q

Transcription // step 5

A

Ribosome reads mRNA codons, brings in complementary tRNA anticodons carrying amino acids

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Q

codons are like..

A

DNA words

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Q

Transcription // step 6

A

Ribosome connects amino acids via peptide bonds to form polypeptide

Q

The translation process incorporates ______ _________________ _____________ ___________________ in the precise sequence dictated by the three-base codons from and alphabet of four bases.

A

20 different amino acids

Q

triplet code

A

three nucleotides specify one amino acid

Q

How many total codons?

A

64

Q

_________ codons correspond to amino acids

A

61

Q

AUG codes for _________________ and signals the start of transcripition

A

methione

Q

_____ “stop” codons signal the end of translation

A

3

Q

initiation

A

RNA polymerase binds to promoter sequence- helix unwinds and transcription starts

Q

termination

A

RNA polymerase reaches terminator sequence and detaches from DNA

Q

mRNA has interrupting sequences called __________

A

introns; separating the coding regions called exons

Q

RNA splicing

A

removal of introns and joining of exons to produce a continuous coding sequence

Q

Initiation in translation

A

start codon initiates building of polypeptide

Q

AUG

A

methionine

Q

Termination in translation

A

stop codon terminates building of polypeptide

Q

elongation in translation

A

amino acids are added by ribosome to grow the chain

Q

mutation

A

change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

Q

mutations are caused by

A

base substitutions
deletions or insertions
spontaneous errors
environmental mutagens (chemicals, radiation, etc)

Q

gene cloning

A

producing multiple identical copies of a gene carrying piece of DNA

Q

step 1 // gene cloning

A

Donor DNA is isolated and cut

Q

step 2 // gene cloning

A

plasmid DNA isolated and cut

Q

plasmid

A

circular DNA found in bacteria

Q

step 3 // gene cloning

A

create recombinant DNA by mixing donor DNA with plasmid

Q

recombinant DNA

A

DNA molecule w/DNA from two different sources.`

Q

products of DNA technology

A

vaccines

…

Q

genetically modified

A

organisms contain one or more genes introduced by artificial means

Q

transgenic organisms

A

contain at least one gene from another species

Q

concerns related to GM organisms

A

can introduce allergens into the food supply

may spread genes to closely related organisms

Q

GMO’s are ________ reduced

A

highly

Q

__________ ________________ address the safe use of biotechnology

A

regulatory agencies

Q

gene therapy

A

aims to treat a disease by replacing a faulty gene with a properly functioning one

Q

controversial:

A

is it right to modify the genes of a human?
Is it safe? (SCID trials)
Are results promising?

Q

So far, benefits have been _______ in gene therapy.

A

slow

Q

DNA profiling involves

A

collecting a DNA sample
amplifying the amount of DNA
cutting and sorting DNA fragments
Analyzing the pattern of bands caused by repeat sequences

Q

collecting a DNA sample

A

must be from cells that contain DNA: Blood (white, not red), bone, hair follicle (not hair protein), skin, ,nerve, cheek cells, etc.

Q

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

a method of amplifying (copying) a specific segment of a DNA molecule

Q

PCR process // step 1

A

denature DNA with heat

Q

denature DNA with heat // causes

A

DNA strands unzip and become single stranded

Q

PCR process // step 2

A

primers attach as sample cools down

Q

Primers are ___________________ to DNA and __________________ the sequence to be copied.

A

complimentary; identify

Q

Primers are ________________

A

man-made

Q

PCR process // step 3

A

DNA polymerase attaches new DNA nucleotides, resulting in copy of DNA molecule
(often isolated from bacteria in hot springs (heat resistant))

Q

In the PCR process, steps are repeated over and over to create a ________ ____________ of copies

A

large number

Q

DNA fragments are cut with ______________ ________________ and sorted by size by gel electrophoresis

A

restriction enzymes

Q

Gel electrophoresis process : 1

A

DNA samples are placed at one end of a porous gel

Q

Gel electrophoresis process: 2

A

Electrical current is applied and negatively charged DNA molecules move from the negative electrode toward the positive electrode.

Q

Short tandem repeats (STRs)

A

genetic markers used in DNA profiling
short DNA sequences that are repeated many ties in a row at the same location
The number of repeats determines the length of the fragment

Q

Only about ___% of our DNA codes for proteins

A

2

Q

Current standard for DNA profiling is to analyze ____ different STR sites

A

13

Q

Forensics

A

evidence to show guilt or innocence

Q

establishing family relationships

A

paternity analysis

Q

identification of human remains

A

After tragedies such as September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center

Q

species identification

A

Evidence for sale of products from endangered species

Q

short DNA sequences that are repeated many times in a _______ at the same location

A

row

Q

the number of _______________ determines the length of the fragment

A

repeats

Q

genomics

A

the study of an organism’s complete set of genes and their interactions

Q

many genomes have been _________________ and ___________________

A

investigated; completed

Q

goals of the human genome project (HGP)

A

determine the nucleotide sequence all DNA in the human genome
identify the location and sequence of every human gene

Q

expected future benefits of the HGP

A

“customized” pharmaceuticals tailed to specific patients
opened discussion for ethical concerns
improved agriculture and environmental management
enhanced ability to identify causes of genetic disorders.

Q

proteomics

A

study of the complete set of proteins specified by a genome

Q

the human proteome contains approx.

A

100,000 proteins

Q

epigenetics

A

study of how environmental factors affect gene expression

Q

gel electrophoresis

A

sorts DNA molecules by size

Q

gel electrophoresis process

A

DNA samples are placed at one end of a porous gel

Q

transgenic organism

A

organism that has had a new gene transferred to it

Q

restriction enzymes

A

cut DNA or specific sequences

enzyme binds to DNA at restriction site

Q

genetically modified

A

contain 1 or more genes introduced by artificial means.