disorders of cell growth (pathology)

Question 1

Describe the classification of tumors based on tissue of origin.

Answer 1

Epithelial tumors (carcinomas) arise from epithelial tissues, while connective tissue tumors (sarcomas) originate from connective tissues like bone, muscle, or cartilage. Hematopoietic and lymphoid tumors arise from blood-forming tissues and the lymphatic system.

Question 2

What are the two main categories of behavior for tumors?

Answer 2

The two main categories of behavior for tumors are benign tumors, which are typically localized and non-invasive, and malignant tumors (cancers), which have the potential to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites.

Question 3

Define differentiation in the context of tumor histological features.

Answer 3

Differentiation refers to how closely tumor cells resemble normal tissue cells. Well-differentiated tumors closely resemble normal cells, while poorly differentiated tumors have less resemblance.

Question 4

How do biomarkers aid in subclassifying tumors and guiding targeted therapies?

Answer 4

Biomarkers, which are specific molecular and genetic markers, help identify different subtypes of tumors and guide targeted therapies based on the unique characteristics of the tumor.

Question 5

Describe the difference between staging and grading of tumors.

Answer 5

Staging describes the extent of spread and involvement of surrounding tissues, while grading assesses the degree of abnormality and aggressiveness of tumor cells.

Question 6

Describe the growth pattern of benign tumors.

Answer 6

Benign tumors typically grow in a well-defined, localized manner without invading surrounding tissues.

Question 7

What does it mean for a benign tumor to be encapsulated?

Answer 7

Benign tumors are often encapsulated, meaning they are surrounded by a fibrous capsule that separates them from neighboring tissues.

Question 8

How do cells in benign tumors differ from normal cells?

Answer 8

Cells in benign tumors closely resemble normal cells and are well-differentiated.

Question 9

Describe the rate of growth of benign tumors.

Answer 9

Benign tumors generally grow slowly and tend to have a more predictable rate of growth.

Question 10

What is the metastatic potential of benign tumors?

Answer 10

Benign tumors do not invade nearby tissues or metastasize to distant sites. They remain confined to their site of origin.

Question 11

What is the mitotic activity like in benign tumors?

Answer 11

Benign tumors usually have a lower rate of cell division (mitosis) compared to malignant tumors.

Question 12

What are the local effects of benign tumors?

Answer 12

Benign tumors may cause local effects by compressing nearby structures, but they do not spread to other parts of the body.

Question 13

Describe the growth pattern of malignant tumors.

Answer 13

Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and have the potential to infiltrate blood vessels or lymphatics, facilitating metastasis.

Question 14

Describe encapsulation in the context of malignant tumors.

Answer 14

Encapsulation refers to the presence of a well-defined capsule around tumors. Malignant tumors lack this capsule and can infiltrate neighboring tissues.

Question 15

What is cellular differentiation and how does it relate to malignant tumors?

Answer 15

Cellular differentiation refers to how closely tumor cells resemble normal cells. Malignant tumors can range from well-differentiated (resembling normal cells) to poorly differentiated or undifferentiated.

Question 16

Explain the rate of growth in malignant tumors.

Answer 16

Malignant tumors may exhibit variable rates of growth. Some can be highly aggressive with rapid progression.

Question 17

Describe the mitotic activity in malignant tumors.

Answer 17

Malignant tumors often display increased mitotic activity, reflecting their rapid cell division.

Question 18

What are the local effects and systemic symptoms associated with malignant tumors?

Answer 18

Malignant tumors can cause local effects such as tissue destruction and may induce systemic symptoms like weight loss and fatigue.

Question 19

What is the clinical impact of malignant tumors?

Answer 19

Malignant tumors have the potential to be life-threatening if not treated promptly. Treatment may involve surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, or a combination.

Question 20

Describe uncontrolled proliferation in cancer cells.

Answer 20

Uncontrolled proliferation refers to the excessive and abnormal cell division observed in cancer cells, which is a result of the loss of cell cycle control.

Question 21

What is the significance of autonomous growth signals in cancer cells?

Answer 21

Autonomous growth signals in cancer cells refer to their ability to grow and divide without external signals. This insensitivity to growth inhibition signals allows cancer cells to disregard normal growth-regulating signals.

Question 22

How do cancer cells evade apoptosis?

Answer 22

Cancer cells can evade apoptosis, or programmed cell death, which is a natural process that eliminates damaged or abnormal cells. This ability to resist apoptosis allows cancer cells to survive and proliferate despite genetic damage or abnormalities.

Question 23

Define angiogenesis induction in cancer cells.

Answer 23

Angiogenesis induction in cancer cells refers to their ability to stimulate the formation of new blood vessels. This process ensures a blood supply to the cancer cells, facilitating their continued growth and survival.

Question 24

Describe telomere maintenance in cancer cells.

Answer 24

Telomere maintenance in cancer cells refers to their ability to maintain the protective ends of chromosomes called telomeres. This allows cancer cells to avoid the normal process of cellular aging and achieve limitless replicative potential.

Question 25

What is metastasis in cancer?

Answer 25

Metastasis is the ability of cancer cells to spread to distant sites through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, forming secondary tumors in distant organs.

Question 26

Describe the process of local invasion in cancer.

Answer 26

Cancer cells invade surrounding tissues at the primary tumor site by breaking through normal tissue boundaries.

Question 27

Cancer cells invade surrounding tissues at the primary tumor site by breaking through normal tissue boundaries.

Answer 27

Intravasation is the process in which cancer cells invade blood vessels or lymphatic vessels.

Question 28

What happens during the arrest at a secondary site in cancer?

Answer 28

Cancer cells must exit the circulation or lymphatic vessels and adhere to the endothelium at a secondary site.

Question 29

Describe the role of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) in cancer.

Answer 29

MMPs help cancer cells degrade the extracellular matrix, facilitating invasion and intravasation.

Question 30

What is the function of angiogenesis in cancer?

Answer 30

Cancer cells stimulate the formation of new blood vessels, promoting the establishment of a blood supply for growing metastases.

Question 31

Define immune evasion in the context of cancer.

Answer 31

Cancer cells may evade the immune system at both the primary and secondary sites, allowing them to survive and proliferate.

Question 32

How does Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) contribute to cancer metastasis?

Answer 32

EMT is a process in which cancer cells acquire characteristics that enhance their ability to invade and metastasize.

Question 33

What is the significance of chemotaxis in cancer?

Answer 33

Cancer cells are attracted to specific chemical signals, guiding their migration towards secondary sites.

Question 34

Describe tissue destruction caused by cancer cells.

Answer 34

Cancer cells can invade and destroy nearby normal tissues as they grow, leading to the loss of functional tissue.

Question 35

What are the effects of tumors exerting physical pressure on surrounding structures?

Answer 35

Tumors can cause compression, leading to pain, altered organ function, or obstruction of normal pathways.

Question 36

How does cancer-related pain occur?

Answer 36

Cancer-related pain can from tissue invasion, compression of nerves, or the release of substances that stimulate pain receptors.

Question 37

Define obstruction caused by tumors.

Answer 37

Tumors in hollow organs or passageways can obstruct the normal flow of fluids, such as urine or blood, leading to issues like urinary obstruction or vascular compromise.

Question 38

Describe how tumors can lead to ulceration.

Answer 38

Some tumors can ulcerate the overlying skin or mucous membranes, leading to open sores that may be prone to infection.

Question 39

How can tumors lead to functional impairment?

Answer 39

Depending on the location, tumors can impair the normal function of organs and tissues. For example, a lung tumor may affect breathing, while a brain tumor can impact neurological function.

Question 40

What is the risk associated with tumors that invade bones?

Answer 40

Tumors that invade bones can weaken them, increasing the risk of fractures.

Question 41

What are the potential effects of tumors compressing or infiltrating nerves?

Answer 41

Tumors can compress or infiltrate nerves, leading to neurological symptoms and pain.

Question 42

Describe weight loss (cachexia) in cancer.

Answer 42

Unintentional weight loss accompanied by muscle wasting and weakness in cancer patients.

Question 43

What is cancer-related fatigue?

Answer 43

A pervasive and persistent feeling of tiredness that can significantly impact a person's quality of life.

Question 44

How can cancer induce fever?

Answer 44

Cancer can induce fever either as a direct effect of the tumor or due to inflammation and immune responses.

Question 45

Define anemia in the context of cancer.

Answer 45

A decrease in red blood cell count resulting in fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath in cancer patients.

Question 46

What is immune system suppression in the context of cancer?

Answer 46

Cancer and its treatments can suppress the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections.

Question 47

How can cancer affect the endocrine system?

Answer 47

Some cancers can disrupt the normal functioning of the endocrine system, leading to hormonal imbalances.

Question 48

Describe cancer-related cognitive impairment.

Answer 48

Cancer-related cognitive impairment, also known as 'chemo brain,' can cause difficulties in concentration, memory, and attention.

Question 49

What are some potential mental health issues that can arise from coping with a cancer diagnosis and treatment?

Answer 49

Coping with a cancer diagnosis and treatment can contribute to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.

Question 50

Define thrombosis and hypercoagulability in relation to cancer.

Answer 50

Thrombosis and hypercoagulability refer to the increased risk of blood clot formation in cancer patients, which can lead to conditions like deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism.

Question 51

Describe dysplasia.

Answer 51

Dysplasia refers to the abnormal growth or development of cells within a tissue. It is characterized by changes in the size, shape, and organization of cells.

Question 52

What is the risk associated with severe dysplasia?

Answer 52

Severe dysplasia indicates a higher risk of progressing to cancer if left untreated.

Question 53

Define intraepithelial neoplasia (IEN).

Answer 53

Intraepithelial neoplasia refers to the abnormal growth of cells within the epithelial layer of an organ or surface without invasion into the underlying tissue.

Question 54

Describe the grading system for intraepithelial neoplasia.

Answer 54

Intraepithelial neoplasia is graded based on the degree of cellular abnormality, similar to dysplasia. It can be classified as low-grade or high-grade, indicating the level of risk for progression to cancer.

Question 55

What is the difference between CIN 1, CIN 2, and CIN 3?

Answer 55

CIN 1 refers to mild dysplasia, CIN 2 refers to moderate dysplasia, and CIN 3 refers to severe dysplasia or carcinoma in situ.

Question 56

Define dysplasia and intraepithelial neoplasia.

Answer 56

Dysplasia is a broader term that describes abnormal cellular changes within epithelial tissues. Intraepithelial neoplasia emphasizes the potential for progression to cancer.

Question 57

Describe the process that occurs during the G1 phase of interphase.

Answer 57

Cell growth and normal metabolic processes occur.

Question 58

What is the function of cyclins in the cell cycle?

Answer 58

Cyclins are regulatory proteins that control the progression of the cell cycle.

Question 59

Name two key genes involved in DNA replication during the S phase of interphase.

Answer 59

DNA polymerase, cyclin A, CDK2.

Question 60

How do tumor suppressor genes function in the cell cycle?

Answer 60

Tumor suppressor genes monitor and repair DNA damage, or initiate apoptosis if damage is irreparable.

Question 61

Describe the function of checkpoint genes.

Answer 61

Checkpoint genes ensure proper progression through the cell cycle by assessing DNA integrity.

Question 62

Define the role of Retinoblastoma Protein (Rb) in the cell cycle.

Answer 62

Rb regulates the G1 to S phase transition by inhibiting CDK4 and CDK6 when unphosphorylated.

Question 63

What is the function of the G1 checkpoint (Restriction Point)?

Answer 63

The G1 checkpoint ensures the cell is ready to enter the S phase.

Question 64

How does the G2/M checkpoint contribute to cell cycle regulation?

Answer 64

The G2/M checkpoint ensures DNA replication is complete and the cell is ready to enter mitosis.

Question 65

Describe the function of the spindle checkpoint.

Answer 65

The spindle checkpoint ensures proper chromosome alignment and attachment to the spindle fibers before cell division.

Question 66

Define oncogenes.

Answer 66

Oncogenes are genes that have the potential to cause cancer.

Question 67

How do mutations in oncogenes contribute to uncontrolled cell growth?

Answer 67

Mutations in oncogenes can lead to the production of a hyperactive or overexpressed protein that promotes uncontrolled cell growth.

Question 68

What are growth factor receptors and how can their mutation contribute to cancer development?

Answer 68

Growth factor receptors, when mutated, can lead to continuous signaling for cell growth, contributing to cancer development.

Question 69

Describe the role of transcription factors in cancer and give examples of oncogenes involved in controlling gene expression.

Answer 69

Transcription factors are oncogenes that control gene expression. Mutations in oncogenes like MYC and MYB can contribute to cancer.

Question 70

What are proto-oncogenes and how do they become oncogenes?

Answer 70

Proto-oncogenes are genes that have important roles in normal cellular function. They become oncogenes when they acquire mutations that confer a growth advantage to the cell.

Question 71

What are the contributions of oncogenes to cancer?

Answer 71

Oncogenes contribute to cancer by promoting cell proliferation, inhibiting apoptosis, and facilitating the survival and growth of cancer cells.

Question 72

Describe the role of tumor suppressor genes in regulating cell division and preventing the formation of tumors.

Answer 72

Tumor suppressor genes regulate cell division and prevent the formation of tumors by inhibiting cell proliferation and promoting proper progression through the cell cycle phases.

Question 73

How do tumor suppressor genes contribute to maintaining the integrity of the cell's genetic material?

Answer 73

Tumor suppressor genes are involved in DNA repair mechanisms, ensuring the integrity of the cell's genetic material.

Question 74

Define apoptosis and explain the role of tumor suppressor genes in this process.

Answer 74

Apoptosis is programmed cell death. Tumor suppressor genes play a role in apoptosis by helping eliminate cells with damaged DNA that could potentially become cancerous.

Question 75

Describe the concept of a tumor suppressor gene.

Answer 75

Tumor suppressor genes are genes that help regulate cell growth and division, and their loss or mutation can contribute to the development of cancer.

Question 76

What is the role of p53 in the cell?

Answer 76

p53 is a crucial tumor suppressor gene that monitors DNA damage and initiates repair processes or apoptosis if damage is severe.

Question 77

Define germline mutation.

Answer 77

A germline mutation refers to a genetic mutation that is present in the germ cells (sperm or egg) and can be passed on to offspring.

Question 78

How do mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes increase the risk of cancer?

Answer 78

Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are associated with an increased risk of breast and ovarian cancers as these genes are involved in DNA repair.

Question 79

Describe the function of PTEN gene.

Answer 79

PTEN gene regulates cell growth and division, and mutations in this gene are associated with various cancers, including breast, prostate, and brain cancers.

Question 80

What is the significance of both copies of a tumor suppressor gene needing to be mutated or inactivated for the protective function to be lost?

Answer 80

Both copies of a tumor suppressor gene need to be mutated or inactivated for the protective function to be lost, ensuring that the loss of function is a rare event and reducing the risk of cancer development.

Question 81

Describe how chemical exposure can increase the risk of cancer.

Answer 81

Chemical exposure to substances like tobacco smoke, industrial chemicals, and environmental pollutants can increase the risk of cancer.

Question 82

Define ionizing radiation and explain how it can contribute to the development of cancer.

Answer 82

Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays or environmental radiation, can damage DNA and contribute to the development of cancer.

Question 83

How are certain infections linked to cancer development?

Answer 83

Certain infections, such as certain strains of human papillomavirus (HPV) and Helicobacter pylori infection, are linked to the development of cervical cancer and stomach cancer, respectively.

Question 84

Describe how genetic mutations can increase susceptibility to cancer.

Answer 84

Genetic mutations, whether inherited or spontaneous, can increase an individual's susceptibility to cancer by altering specific genes that regulate cell growth and division.

Question 85

Do epigenetic changes involve alterations in the DNA sequence?

Answer 85

No, epigenetic changes involve alterations in gene expression without changes in the underlying DNA sequence.

Question 86

Describe how a family history of cancer can indicate a hereditary predisposition.

Answer 86

A family history of certain cancers can indicate a hereditary predisposition, suggesting the presence of genetic mutations that increase the risk of developing cancer.

Question 87

Describe the multistep nature of carcinogenesis.

Answer 87

The multistep nature of carcinogenesis refers to the gradual process by which normal cells transform into cancer cells through the accumulation of genetic and epigenetic alterations over time.

Question 88

What is the initiation stage in carcinogenesis?

Answer 88

The initiation stage is the first step in carcinogenesis where exposure to carcinogens or genetic mutations leads to the initial transformation of a normal cell into a precancerous cell.

Question 89

Define promotion in the context of carcinogenesis.

Answer 89

Promotion in carcinogenesis refers to the stage following initiation, where the initiated cells undergo expansion and further development.

Question 90

Describe the progression phase of cancer.

Answer 90

During progression, additional genetic and epigenetic changes occur, promoting the evolution of precancerous cells into fully malignant cancer cells.

Question 91

Define heterogeneity in the context of cancer.

Answer 91

Heterogeneity refers to the genetic and phenotypic diversity observed within a tumor, where different subpopulations of cells may harbor distinct genetic alterations.

Question 92

Define metastasis.

Answer 92

Metastasis is the ability of cancer cells to invade surrounding tissues and spread to distant organs, representing a late stage in the multistep process of carcinogenesis.

Question 93

What can happen if the HER2 gene is amplified or overexpressed?

Answer 93

Amplification or overexpression of the HER2 gene can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation.

Question 94

Which cancer is often associated with HER2 overexpression?

Answer 94

HER2 overexpression is often associated with breast cancer.

Question 95

Which cancers frequently have mutations in the BRAF gene?

Answer 95

Mutations in the BRAF gene are frequently found in melanoma and colorectal cancer.

Question 96

What is the common mutation in the BRAF gene in melanoma?

Answer 96

The V600E mutation is common in the BRAF gene in melanoma.

Question 97

Describe the role of the RB gene.

Answer 97

The RB gene codes for the retinoblastoma protein, which regulates the cell cycle by inhibiting cell division.

Question 98

Which cancers are associated with RB mutations?

Answer 98

RB mutations are found in retinoblastoma, osteosarcoma, and small-cell lung cancer.

Question 99

Describe the role of mismatch repair proteins.

Answer 99

Mismatch repair proteins are involved in correcting errors that occur during DNA replication.

Question 100

What is the consequence of deficiencies in mismatch repair?

Answer 100

Deficiencies in mismatch repair can lead to the accumulation of genetic mutations.

Question 101

Define p53.

Answer 101

p53 is a tumor suppressor gene that regulates the cell cycle, DNA repair, and apoptosis.

Question 102

Which cancers are commonly associated with mismatch repair deficiencies?

Answer 102

Mismatch repair deficiencies are commonly seen in hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), endometrial, and ovarian cancers.

Question 103

How do TP53 mutations contribute to cancer development?

Answer 103

TP53 mutations can confer a survival advantage to cancer cells by evading apoptosis and promoting genomic instability.

Question 104

Describe the link between smoking and cancer.

Answer 104

Tobacco smoke contains carcinogens and smoking is a major risk factor for several types of cancer, including lung, mouth, throat, esophagus, pancreas, bladder, kidney, and cervix.

Question 105

What is the mechanism by which smoking contributes to cancer development?

Answer 105

The carcinogens in tobacco smoke can damage DNA in cells, leading to genetic mutations. Chronic exposure to these mutagenic substances contributes to the transformation of normal cells into cancer cells. Smoking also causes inflammation and impairs DNA repair.

Question 106

Describe the link between HPV and cancer.

Answer 106

Certain strains of HPV are strongly linked to the development of cervical and other cancers. HPV is a sexually transmitted infection, and persistent infection with high-risk HPV types can lead to the transformation of normal cells into cancerous cells.

Question 107

How does HPV infect the body?

Answer 107

HPV primarily infects epithelial cells, primarily in the genital and oropharyngeal areas.

Question 108

What are the types of cancer associated with smoking?

Answer 108

Smoking is associated with lung, mouth, throat, esophagus, pancreas, bladder, kidney, and cervix cancers.

Question 109

Describe the mechanism by which high-risk HPV types can lead to cancer.

Answer 109

High-risk HPV types can integrate their DNA into the host cell's genome, disrupting normal cellular control mechanisms. This can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and the development of precancerous lesions that may progress to cancer.

Question 110

What are some cancers associated with excessive and chronic alcohol consumption?

Answer 110

Cancers associated with alcohol consumption include those of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, liver, colorectum, and breast.

Question 111

How does alcohol contribute to cancer development?

Answer 111

Alcohol can be metabolized in the body to acetaldehyde, a toxic and carcinogenic substance. Acetaldehyde can directly damage DNA, leading to genetic mutations. Chronic alcohol use can also contribute to inflammation, impair immune function, and interfere with the absorption of essential nutrients, all of which can contribute to cancer development.