Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

biology module 4 > disease + defences in animals > Flashcards

disease + defences in animals Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
WSET ® Level 4 D2 Business of Wine flashcards AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are the 7 main non-specific defences to disease in animals

A
  • hand washing
  • eyelashes + tears
  • nose + body hair
  • earwax
  • ciliated epithelium
  • stomach acid
  • phagocytes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

how does hand washing protect against disease

A

it removes bacteria and other microorganisms form skins surface, preventing entry + infection

also prevents spread among humans

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

how do eyelashes + tears protect against disease

A

eyelashes are a physical barrier defence preventing pathogens entering or settling on cornea

tears contain lysosomes with hydrolytic enzymes so they can kill bacteria - makes tears antiseptic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

how does nose + body hair protect against disease

A

hair traps large pathogens and prevents them from entering the body

hairs also produce sebum - oil that stops bacteria reproducing

micro biotic flora in these areas can fight off pathogens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

how does earwax protect against disease

A

it can trap pathogens

small hairs can then move earwax out of the ear into the outer area where it can be cleaned

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

how does ciliated epithelium protect against disease

A

found alongside goblet cells which secrete mucus that traps pathogens small enough to pass through nose hair

cilia beat to waft away mucus so it can be disposed of, e.g. by stomach acids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

how does stomach acid protect against disease

A

helpful bacteria on stomach lining can fight off pathogen

HCl is very acidic + stops microorganisms from settling as most are unable to survive

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

what are the 2 types of phagocyte

A

neutrophils and macrophages

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

outline the process of phagocytosis in neutrophils

A

1- cytokines, histamines and antibodies attract phagocyte to the area
2- cell surface membrane extends around the pathogens and engulfs it via endocytosis - requires ATP
3- a phagosome is formed and lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes fuse with the phagosome - forms a phagolysosome
4- hydrolytic enzymes digest + break down pathogen
5- toxic waste products are absorbed by neutrophil

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

why are neutrophils short lived cells

A

they absorb toxic waste products from pathogen break down which ends up killing it
- pus is a sign of dead neutrophils

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

how do phagocytes protect against disease

A

they kill pathogens through phagocytosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

outline the process of phagocytosis in macrophages

A

1- cytokines, histamines and antibodies attract phagocyte to the area
2- cell surface membrane extends around the pathogens and engulfs it via endocytosis - requires ATP
3- a phagosome is formed and lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes fuse with the phagosome - forms a phagolysosome
4- the hydrolytic enzymes cut up the pathogen
5- using glycoproteins on cell surface membrane the antigens from the pathogen are attached on the outside of the macrophage - it becomes an antigen presenting cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

what is a macrophage with foreign antigens attached to it called

A

antigen presenting cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

what is formed when a foreign antigen attaches to the macrophage cell surface membrane

A

major histocompatibility complex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

how does the activity of a macrophage enhance the body’s immune response

A

major histocompatibility complexes can be recognised by T-lymphocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what type of immunity is achieved by T-cells

A

cell mediated immunity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

where are T-cells made + found

A

made in bone marrow and differentiate in thymus gland

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

outline the mechanism of T-lymphocytes in the immune response

A

1- an antigen presenting cell is formed in the body’s primary response
2- a T-helper cell which matching receptors binds to the APC and becomes activated - clonal selection
3- the T-helper cell undergoes mitosis - clonal expansion
4- it also releases interleukins
5- the cloned T-cells can now differentiate into many types of cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

interleukins definition

A

a type of cytokine

these can trigger phagocytes to increase the rate of phagocytosis and stimulates B-cells to undergo clonal expansion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

what 4 types of cells can T-cells differentiate into

A

T-helper
T-killer
T-regulator
T-memory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what do T-helper cells do

A

they can release cytokines and interleukins
this helps attract macrophages / phagocytes and also helps B-cells divide

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what do T-killer cells do

A

they attach to foreign antigens on infected body cells/cancers and secrete chemicals that kill cells
- these are perforins, which destroy cell surface membrane and cause the cell to burst/die

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what do T-regulator cells do

A

these regulate the immune response by preventing attacked on uninfected cells and shutting down the process when pathogen is cleared, so no resources are wasted

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

what do T-memory cells do

A

these are long lived cells which remain in blood
they can rapidly divide into T-killer cells - secondary immune response

if the body is infected with the same pathogen again clonal selection is much faster due to these cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

what type of immunity is achieved by B-cells

A

humoral immunity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

where are B-cells made + found

A

made and matured in bone marrow

27
Q

outline the mechanism of B-lymphocytes in the immune response

A

1- pathogens/antigens enter humour and are engulfed
2- B-lymphocytes digest pathogen and presents antigens - becomes an antigen presenting cells
3- T-helper cells attach to APC causing clonal selection
4- T-helper cells release interleukins which activates B-cells to divide - this is clonal expansion
5- B-cells divide into many types of cell

28
Q

what 2 types of cells can B-cells differentiate into

A

plasma cells
B-memory cells

29
Q

what do plasma cells do

A

they make and secrete specific antibodies into the blood, lymph, lining of lungs and gut

in the body’s first encounter with the pathogen it takes some time for the correct plasma cells and antibodies to be produced, so the pathogen is able to reproduce - so body will show symptoms

30
Q

what do B-memory cells do

A

they are long lived cells which remain in blood and can rapidly divide into plasma cells and produce antibodies - secondary immune response

often in these cases they can destroy pathogens before symptoms develop

31
Q

what are antibodies

A

Y shaped proteins produced by plasma cells that fight off pathogens - specific immune response

32
Q

what kind of protein are antibodies

A

globular proteins with quaternary structures - made of 2 heavy chains + 2 light chains

33
Q

name the main structural features of an antibody

A

antigen binding sites
disulphide bridges
2 light polypeptide chains
2 heavy polypeptide chains
variable region
constant region
hinge region

34
Q

what is the structure + function of the antigen binding sites

A

there are 2 located on the tips of the Y shape - these are complementary to the antigens, so varies between antibodies

they bind to the antigens on a pathogen and help to destroy them

35
Q

what is the function of the disulphide bridges

A

these hold the polypeptide chains together, maintaining the Y shape

36
Q

what is the structure + function of the variable region

A

these contain the amino acid sequence that is unique for each antibody / complementary for each pathogen

it is where the antigen binding sites are located

37
Q

what is the structure + function of the constant region

A

these do not vary within a class of antibodies but can vary between classes - they determine the mechanism used to destroy pathogens
- there are 5 classes, all with different roles

38
Q

what is the structure + function of the hinge region

A

this is located at the Y intersection - it gives flexibility to the antibody allowing the antigen binding sites to be placed at different angles when binding, and also allows antibodies to catch onto more than 1 binding site

39
Q

what are 3 functions of antibodies

A

opsonins
agglutinins
antitoxins

40
Q

how do antibodies act as opsonins

A

opsonins facilitate the recognition and destruction of pathogens by immune cells by binding to the surface of pathogens in order to aid in its recognition + destruction

antibodies do this by binding to antigens on pathogens, as they are complementary

41
Q

how do antibodies act as agglutinins

A

agglutinins bind to the antigen, causing them to crosslink and form a lattice like structure, trapping cells together so they are more easily engulfed by white blood cells

antibodies are capable of clumping together pathogens as they have 2 binding sites

42
Q

how do antibodies act as antitoxins

A

antitoxins can neutralise the harmful effects of toxins by binding to them and so preventing them from binding to target cells

antibodies are produced in response to the presence of toxins produce by antibodies and can bind to them to neutralise them - they are also used in the treatment of some infections due to this, as they can help with patient recovery

43
Q

how are toxins harmful to the body

A

they can cause tissue damage, impair organ function, and even cause death

44
Q

autoimmune disease definition

A

conditions caused when immune responses occur against naturally occurring body cells

45
Q

give 2 examples of autoimmune diseases

A

lupus
rheumatoid arthritis

46
Q

why is treating lupus difficult

A
  • lupus is a chronic disease with no cure
  • treatments depend on individual symptoms, it can prevent flares or improve other symptoms of lupus
  • diagnosis is difficult as it is often mistaken for other diseases and symptoms vary between individuals
47
Q

what areas are often affected by lupus

A

as lupus is a chronic disease, this means long term destruction is caused
- affected areas include joints, kidneys, heart, lungs, skin

48
Q

what areas are often affected by rheumatoid arthiritis

A

solely affects joints, usually begins in the fingers and hands, spreading later to other places

49
Q

what causes autoimmune diseases

A

causes are being researched - thought to be both environmental and genetic

50
Q

outline the blood clotting process

A

1- endothelium is cut / damaged
2- this activates mast cells, causing the secretion of cytokines and histamines
3- exposed collagen fibres stimulates secretion of serotonin and activates platelets
4- platelets cause the secretion of thromboplastin which causes the release of Ca2+, and with Ca2+ it acts on prothrombin
5- prothrombin is converted to thrombin
6- thrombin acts on fibrinogen, converting it to fibrin
7- fibrin forms a mesh which traps red blood cells, forming the clot

51
Q

what is the purpose of cytokines in blood clotting

A

they attract phagocytes

52
Q

what is the purpose of histamines in blood clotting

A

causes vasodilation
- this causes blood vessels to be more leaky, pushing out tissue fluid, causing pain + irritation
- also it increases temperature due to increased blood supply which can reduce ability of pathogens to reproduce? and causes irritation

53
Q

what is the purpose of serotonin in blood clotting

A

it restricts blood supply + helps platelets cluster together preventing blood loss

54
Q

platelets definition

A

short lived cell fragments, no nucleus, formed in bone marrow before being released into blood

55
Q

what is thromboplastin

A

this is a clotting factor - it works with Ca2+

56
Q

what is prothrombin

A

a blood protein

57
Q

what is thrombin

A

an active enzyme, made from prothrombin

58
Q

what is fibrinogen

A

a soluble blood protein

59
Q

what is fibrin

A

an insoluble blood protein formed from fibrinogen

60
Q

what type of disease is HIV

A

viral

61
Q

what type of cells does HIV affect - and what can be inferred about how + the consequences of the disease

A

white blood cells
- they may be able to move into the white blood cells through a transport protein that is a similar / complementary shape
- this would impact the immune system, this could link to the cause for AIDS

62
Q

what is the treatment for HIV

A

retroviral drugs

63
Q

how is HIV transmitted

A

sexually, through exchange of bodily fluids

biology module 4 (6 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions