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Diabetes Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Homeostasis

A

Disrupted by an imbalance which is detected by a receptor that send an afferent signal to the control center where an efferent signal is sent to the effector that respond by restoring homeostasis

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2
Q

5 basic principles to maintain homeostasis

A

1- shape= function, change shape and change activity of molecule
2- to move water, move solute first
3- blood pressure= blood volume
4- loss of compartment integrity leads to disease/death
5- Bicarb equation of vital to homeostasis

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3
Q

Normal body parameters
Blood
BPM
BP
PH

A

5 L
60-80, 70 AVG
120/80
7.35-7.45

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4
Q

RR
BLGLU
O2
TEMP

A

12-15
100
98% saturated
97 Degrees

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5
Q

What type of feedback loop is homeostasis

A

Negative feedback loop because the body receives a signal then release a response to stop the signal

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6
Q

Diabetes

A

Failure to regulate blood glucose by insulin release and reception

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7
Q

Type 1 diabetes

A

Insulin isn’t produced by the pancreas, insulin-dependent

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8
Q

Type 2 diabetes

A

Pancreas don’t produce enough insulin

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9
Q

Gestational diabetes

A

Insulin is less effective during pregnancy

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10
Q

Diabetes symptoms

A

Frequently urination, dizziness, vision blurred, constant feeling of hunger, fatigue, dry mouth, itching

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11
Q

Metabolism

A

Refers to anabolic (build up) and catabolic (break down) reactions within the cell

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12
Q

Diet

A

Carbohydrates and be used to build up amino acids and fats and the reverse can occur

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13
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Glucose to glycogen

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14
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breaks down glycogen to glucose

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15
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Excess glucose can be used to make fat stores

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16
Q

Lipolysis

A

Break down fats to free fatty acid

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17
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

New glucose from amino acid

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18
Q

Fed State

A

Immediately after eating, converted into glycogen and triglycerides, insulin is dominant. Enzymes for glycogen breakdown are inhibited.

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19
Q

Fasted State

A

Between meals, break down glycogen and triglycerides into glucose, glucagon is dominant. Enzymes for glycogen synthesis are inhibited.

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20
Q

In fed state, triglycerides and cholesterol are absorbed and/or synthesized from glucose

A

1- glycerol (3C) is made from glucose during glycolysis
2-Fatty acids are when two carbon units from acetyl CoA are linked together
3- 1 Glycerol and 3 fatty acids combine to make triglyceride

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21
Q

In fasted state, glycogenolysis, amino acid catabolism and gluconeogenesis maintain ATP and glucose blood level

A

-Glycogenolysis is when glycogen is broken down back into glucose by the the liver and kidney
-Glycogenic AA can be broken down into pyruvate then go back to glycolysis and used to reproduced glucose through gluconeogenesis.
-Fatty acids can be beta-oxidized and used to produced ATP. Lipolysis is when triglycerides is broken down into fatty acids

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22
Q

How are protein, carbohydrate or fat metabolized

A

Acetyl group can be used to make steroid hormones, fatty acids and oxaloacetate to citrate then amino acids are made.

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23
Q

What are some essential nutrients obtained through eating

A

Acetyl groups C=C
Amino acids (8 essential ones)
Fatty acids (2C)
Vitamins( water, fat-soluble)
Minerals (micro, macro)

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24
Q

Polymers of glucose can be used for energy storage and structural support

A

Cellulose is fiber that can’t be broken down due to its orientation and is able to pack tightly so we can’t digest it, beta linkage.
Starch and Glycogen are polymers of glucose that can only branch into one direction.
Starch isn’t well branched and glycogen is highly branched, alpha linkage.

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25
Q

Glucose is the primary source for converting the energy stored in chemical bonds into ATP

A

Hexokinase- phosphorylate the six carbon of glucose by breaking down ATP.
Phosphoglucose- isomerase- catalyze the reversible isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P).
Phosphofructokinase- turns fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6- bisphosphate by breaking down fructose.
Aldolase- Breaks down fructose 1,6 biphosphate into 3 carbon molecules with an aldehyde group

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26
Q

Lactic acid formation
Anaerobic when O2 is low

A

Quick energy use
Glucose broken down through glycolysis and makes 2 net ATP
Glucose makes 2 pyruvate then through fermentation makes 2 lactate
Pyruvate takes one electron NADH for NAD+ which is later used for glycolysis and producing ATP

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27
Q

What is acetyl CoA

A

acetyl CoA is a 2 enzyme carbon that is made from pyruvate break down. Pyruvate breaks down into 2 carbon molecules and then reacts with Coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA

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28
Q

Steps of cellular respiration

A

Glycolysis-pyruvate oxidation - citric acid cycle- lactate acid fermentation- electron transport/ATP synthesis- CO2 and O2

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29
Q

Citric acid cycle

A

Happens in the mitochondria
Acetyl CoA is used to make NADH from NAD+ and CO2 is released twice’; GDP is catalyzed from phosphate and GTP.
FAD is gain 2 electrons to become FADH2; during the last step, NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
3 NADH
1 FADH2
2 CO2 released
1 ATP OR GTP made

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30
Q

Why do we need O2

A

O2 is necessary for oxidative phosphorylation because it accepts electrons and pick up protons to form water.

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31
Q

Why do we breathe out CO2?

A

CO2 is a waste product of cellular respiration that is formed when carbon and 02 meet each other. When CO2 accumulates, the blood pH drops because bicarb equation eq shifts to right and increase H+ ions.

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32
Q

Steps of oxidative phosphorylation

A

1- NADH and FADH2 are oxidized back to NAD+ and FADH.
2- H+ ions are pumped across the mitochondrial membrane to establish an electrochemical gradient
3- electrons are transferred to oxygen causing it to split up and take up H+ ions which forms water
4- H ion flow down the gradient to generate ATP.

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33
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

The energy from the proton gradient is used to make ATP. As H flows down, ATP synthase use H+ to make ATP.

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34
Q

What does cyanide do?

A

It inactivates mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation which inhibits cellular respiration under aerobic conditions which leads to an over production of lactic acid

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35
Q

How much calories is each macromolecules

A

Fats= 9kcal/g
Carbohydrates= 4
Proteins= 4
Ethanol= 7

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36
Q

Unsaturated vs saturated fatty acid

A

Unsaturated ones have a C=C so no packing tightly and liquid at room temperature
Saturated fatty acid pack tightly and are solid at room temperature

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37
Q

Complete proteins

A

Grains and legumes( beans)

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38
Q

Why is glycemic index important for diabetes

A

It measures how much specific foods increase blood sugar levels very rapidly. It’s important for type 1 diabetic that need insulin pumped into their blood so that their blood sugar levels don’t increase to a life threatening level.

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39
Q

Three broad categories of hormones

A

Peptide hormones are dissolved in the blood, hydrophilic and the receptor is the cell membrane, it need help going through the plasma membrane. Insulin and parathyroid hormones. They modify existing proteins and induce synthesis of proteins

Steroid hormones are hydrophobic and transported though carrier proteins, they can cross the plasma membrane easily and have receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus. Estrogen, androgens, cortisol, aldosterone. Induce new protein synthesis

Amine hormones which are tyrosine derivatives, 2 kind. Change the central dogma

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40
Q

Catecholamines

A

Dissolved in plasma and have receptor on cell membrane, modifies existing proteins. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine from medula

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41
Q

Thyroid Hormones

A

Carried in plasma, receptor in the nucleus, induces new protein synthesis by activating genes for transcription and translation

42
Q

Where are steroid derived from

A

Steroid are derived from cholesterol

43
Q

Steroid hormones come from the adrenal cortex

A

Cholesterol can be synthesized to DHEA which can become androstenedione then testosterones but the active form is DHT which is the male hormone or progesterone can be made which makes cortisol and corticosterone winch can become aldosterone

44
Q

How does testosterone and androstadiene is converted into female hormones

A

Aromatase is used to covert androstenedione to estrone and testosterone to estradiol

45
Q

What are the female hormones

A

Progesterone, estrone, estradiol

46
Q

What are the male hormones

A

DHEA, Androstenedione, testosterone, DHT

47
Q

What hormones do everyone has

A

Cortisol and corticosterone

48
Q

Sex hormones

A

Androgens

49
Q

What releases aldosterone

A

It is released by adrenal gland in the adrenal cortex

50
Q

How do peptide cross the cell membrane

A

Peptide hormones are too large and charged so they need surface receptors, hydrophilic so they are fast acting because they can travel fast through blood.

51
Q

Tyrosine

A

include dopamine, epi, norEpi which arecatechloamine
Tyrosine is elastic, two of them make dityrosine and is found in gluten
Makes melanin and Poppy which makes morphine
Tryptophan makes melatonin

52
Q

What is insulin structure?

A

Insulin is a quaternary protein, has subunits, sulfur-sulfur bond

53
Q

Hypothalamus-pituitary axis center of endocrine control system in the body

A

Anterior side is portal system and posterior side is neurohormones

54
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Neurons synthesizing neurohormones that release them into capillaries of portal system then the portal veins carry them to the anterior pituitary, where they act on the endocrine cells and they release peptide hormones into the second set of capillaries for distribution to the rest of the body.

55
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Neurohormone is made and packaged in cell body then vesicles are transported down the cell, vesicles containing neurohormone are stored in posterior pituitary then released into blood like vasopressin and oxytocin

56
Q

What releases in the cortex of the adrenal gland and the medulla

A

Adrenal gland releases corticoids and sex hormones, aldosterone and the medulla releases catecholamines

57
Q

Cortisol is release at the HPA and increase glucose activity while decreasing immune activity

A

The hypothalamus gives CRH which releases ACTH that stimulates the release of cortisol which is secreted by the adrenal cortex. Cortisol suppresses the immune system function
liver leads to gluconeogenesis which breaks down AA to make new glucose
muscle leads to protein catabolism
adipose tissue leads to lipolysis which breaks down fats and move it to unusual part of the body.

58
Q

common mechanism for control in the body is negative feedback

A

The hypothalamus secretes CRH( corticotropin-releasing hormone) which then makes the anterior pituitary release ACTH( adrenocorticotropin hormone) and then in the adrenal cortex secretes cortisol then target tissue and response.

59
Q

half life

A

Water based hormone have a short life like insulin and adrenaline
Steroid hormone have high half-life

60
Q

Endocrine pathologies involve

A

either hypo- or hyper secretion. Primary, secondary and tertiary in origin

61
Q

Primary in origin

A

Problem in the adrenal cortex which make cortisol and can hyper or hypo secretes.
Low CRH, low ACTH

62
Q

Secondary in origin

A

Problem in the pituitary gland leads to an overproduction of ACTH and cortisol
Low CRH
High ACTH, Cortisol

63
Q

Tertiary origin

A

Problem in the hypothalamus leads to an overproduction of CRH, ANCH and Cortisol
High CRH, ANCH, Cortisol and the negative feedback fails

64
Q

Hyposecretion pathologies

A

SAD and melatonin
Male menopause and testosterone

65
Q

Hypersecretion

A

Cushing’s disease and glucocorticoids
Androgenetic syndrome and androgens

66
Q

Chemicals that mimic endocrine structure can act as endocrine disrupters

A

DES, DDT, PCB, BPA, Soy which disrupt the endocrine system
Estrogen receptors accept any keys and go into the nucleus and affect translation and transcription.

67
Q

Obesogens

A

endocrine disrupters that may specifically affect cortisol activities.

68
Q

How can obesegens and other endocrine disruptors could play a role in type 2 diabetes

A

Obesegens lead to fat accumulation and lead to obesity which is a big factor for type 2 diabetes
Insulin resistance can happen due to the endocrine disruptors that can interfere with insulin signaling pathways

69
Q

What type of cells release glucagon and insulin

A

Pancreatic alpha cells release glucagon and beta cells release insulin
Low BGL leads to glucagon release
High BGL leads to insulin release

70
Q

Step of insulin release requires gradients of glucose, potassium and calcium( ATP)

A

High blood glucose makes glucose enter in the cell through GLUT transporters, Metabolism increases with high rates of glycolysis and citric acid cycle and ATP increases. High concentration of ATP closes potassium channels; Potassium leads to depolarization which calcium channels open. Ca2+ enter the cell and bind to the vesicles then snare protein with insulin will exocytose out of the cell.
Insulin release is no nerve or hormone dependent.
Glucose concentration draws release of insulin

71
Q

How does hyperkalemia affect homeostasis insulin release

A

High potassium in blood means high potassium in cells so high membrane potential closer to threshold which makes it easier for cell to depolarize and more calcium will enter the cell and insulin will release in high levels

72
Q

How does hypocalcemia affect homeostatic insulin release

A

Low calcium in blood which means less calcium coming into the cell which lead to the low release of insulin out of the cell.

73
Q

How is diabetes diagnosed?

A

By testing the homeostatic mechanisms of endocrine control, someone with diabetes take larger to bring down their blood sugar down

74
Q

Normal glucose blood fasting level?

A

100 mg/dL

75
Q

Hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia

A

Low blood sugar
High blood sugar

76
Q

HBA1C

A

Hemoglobin being bound by glucose, the higher the number then the closer to diabetes you are.
Blood pressure can increase

77
Q

SGLT

A

Has a maximum reabsorption rate
1-Glucose falls into the bowman’s capsule and is reabsorbed
2-Glucose clearance should be zero
3-Hyperglecemia cause increased filtration and transported overload

78
Q

Renal threshold and transport maximum

A

Renal is 300 and the SGLT transport is lower than 300

79
Q

Glucosuria

A

Glucose in urine

80
Q

Albuminuria

A

Albumin in protein

81
Q

Ketonuria

A

Ketone bodies in urine

82
Q

Hematuria

A

Blood in urine

83
Q

Type 1 diabetes

A

Associated with hyperglycemia and acidosis
destruction of beta cells

84
Q

Flowchart of hyperglycemia

A

Leads to ketone production which leads ketoacidosis which leads to metabolism acidosis and an increase of lactic acid production
Renal threshold being exceed leads to glusoria which can lead to dehydration by water following solute which decreases blood pressure and volume.

85
Q

Why does metabolic acidosis cause rapid breathing, lactic acid production, ketoacidiosis

A

Trying to expel C02 as fast as possible which leads to Kausser breathing
Lactic acid production is increased because NAD+ is needed in the citric acid cycle, ETC and glycolysis
Ketoacidosis- due to acetly CoA forming and making ketone bodies that are acidic and drop the blood pH

86
Q

Insulin flow in beta cells vs regular cells

A

Pancreatic beta cells have permeability to insulin which lets glucose directly flow into them and regular cells need insulin to let glucose into them.

87
Q

Type 1 diabetes symptoms

A

Skinny due to breaking down fatty acids
Insulin deficiently
Thirst and hunger increase
Frequent urination
Faulty pancreatic beta cells

88
Q

Type 2 diabetes symptoms

A

90% of diabetic, hyperglycemia
Visceral obesity
Fasting blood sugar above 110
Insulin resistance
frequent urination
Diabetic foot

89
Q

Retinopathy

A

Loss of vision due to sugar blocking blood in blood vessels
Angiogenesis- increase of blood vessels in the eye

90
Q

Neuropathy

A

Loss of sensation

91
Q

Gestational diabetes

A

Insulin is less effective due to pregnancy hormones affecting the pancreas

92
Q

Exercise can increase glucose efficiency

A

Muscles cell will use glucose to perform actions and decrease it in the blood
Muscles cell will increase insulin sensibility
Extensive exercise use up Carbs

93
Q

How to treat type 2 diabetes

A

Stimulate beta cells to produce insulin
Slow digestion and absorption of carbs by reading the glycemic index
Inhibit gluconeogenesis
Increase target tissue response like in the muscles cells
Decrease glucose reabsorption in the kidney by inhibiting SGLT

94
Q

Type 1 diabetes treatment

A

Insulin replacement

95
Q

Invokane

A

Inhibit SGLT in kidney, decrease glucose concentration in blood

96
Q

Invokana- weight loss

A

Glucose being secreted and water follows it so that decrease weight. Fats will be burned for energy

97
Q

Invokana- increased urination

A

Glucose is excreted and water follows along

98
Q

Hypotension and invokana

A

Too much loss of glucose decreases the blood glucose level which decreases blood pressure .

99
Q

Yeast infection

A

Urine in the urinary tract leads to bacteria buildup

100
Q

Hypoglycemia

A

Too much glucose lost in urine

101
Q

Anion gap under DKA

A

Anion gap widens due to the addition of ketone bodies and decrease of HCO3 because it tries to absorb the H+ being released in the blood and that release CO2 and leads to kausser breathing.

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