Diabeetus

Question 1

What are the exocrine functions of the pancreas?

Answer 1

Producing digestive enzymes released into the duodenum for protein, fat, and carb breakdown.

Question 2

What are the endocrine functions of the pancreas?

Answer 2

Regulating blood glucose via hormones from the islets of Langerhans.

Question 3

What hormones do pancreatic beta and alpha cells release?

Answer 3

Beta cells release insulin; alpha cells release glucagon.

Question 4

How does insulin lower blood glucose?

Answer 4

Facilitates glucose uptake and promotes glycogen storage.

Question 5

How does glucagon raise blood glucose?

Answer 5

Stimulates glycogen breakdown and glucose production.

Question 6

What are the four main types of diabetes mellitus?

Answer 6

Type I: Insulin-dependent, autoimmune destruction of beta cells.
Type II: Non-insulin-dependent, linked to insulin resistance.
Type III: Secondary to conditions like pancreatitis.
Type IV: Gestational diabetes due to pregnancy-related insulin resistance.

Question 7

What are the three cardinal symptoms of diabetes?

Answer 7

Polydipsia (thirst), polyuria (urination), and polyphagia (hunger).

Question 8

What is the sorbitol pathway?

Answer 8

Converts excess glucose to sorbitol and fructose, causing osmotic stress in cells.

Question 9

Why does the sorbitol pathway cause damage?

Answer 9

Osmotic stress leads to cell damage, contributing to neuropathy and blindness.

Question 10

What does the fasting blood glucose (BG) test measure?

Answer 10

Baseline glucose levels after an overnight fast.

Question 11

What does the glucose tolerance test measure?

Answer 11

BG response after consuming a glucose drink over several hours.

Question 12

What is the structure of insulin?

Answer 12

A peptide hormone with alpha and beta chains linked by disulfide bonds.

Question 13

What is proinsulin?

Answer 13

The inactive form of insulin that becomes active after C-peptide cleavage.

Question 14

What are insulin secretagogues?

Answer 14

Substances like glucose, amino acids, and incretins that stimulate insulin release.

Question 15

What is the insulin receptor pathway?

Answer 15

Insulin binds to a tyrosine kinase receptor, initiating GLUT translocation for glucose uptake.

Question 16

What is GLUT2, and where is it found?

Answer 16

A low-affinity glucose transporter in beta cells and the liver, active at high BG levels.

Question 17

What is GLUT4, and where is it found?

Answer 17

A moderate-affinity glucose transporter in muscle and adipose tissue, responsive to insulin.

Question 18

What are the four types of insulin preparations?

Answer 18

Rapid: Lispro, aspart.
Short: Regular insulin.
Intermediate: NPH.
Long: Glargine, detemir.

Question 19

What is an intensive insulin dosing regimen?

Answer 19

Basal + bolus with long-acting insulin for baseline and rapid-acting for meals.

Question 20

What is a conventional insulin dosing regimen?

Answer 20

Premixed insulin (e.g., 70:30) for less precise, easier dosing.

Question 21

How does an insulin pump work?

Answer 21

Provides continuous subcutaneous insulin for tight glucose control.

Question 22

How do you calculate insulin for carb coverage?

Answer 22

Divide carb intake by the carb-to-insulin ratio (e.g., 60g carbs ÷ 15g/unit = 4 units).

Question 23

How do you calculate insulin correction for high BG?

Answer 23

Determine how many units lower BG to the target level (e.g., 200 mg/dL → 100 mg/dL needs 2 units if 1 unit lowers 50 mg/dL).

Question 24

What are the symptoms of hypoglycemia?

Answer 24

Anxiety, blurred vision, sweating, slurred speech, shakiness, and confusion.

Question 25

How is hypoglycemia treated?

Answer 25

Glucose tablets, sugary drinks, or glucagon injection if severe.

Question 26

What is the MOA of biguanides like metformin?

Answer 26

Reduce hepatic glucose production.

Question 27

What are insulin secretagogues, and give examples?

Answer 27

Drugs that increase insulin release by blocking potassium channels (e.g., sulfonylureas, meglitinides).

Question 28

What is the MOA of thiazolidinediones (TZDs)?

Answer 28

Enhance insulin sensitivity via PPAR activation.

Question 29

What is the MOA of alpha-glucosidase inhibitors?

Answer 29

Delay carbohydrate absorption in the intestine.

Question 30

What is the MOA of bile acid binding resins?

Answer 30

Reduce glucose reabsorption by binding bile acids in the intestine.

Question 31

What is an example of an amylin analog, and how does it work?

Answer 31

Pramlintide; suppresses glucagon release and reduces BG.

Question 32

What are examples of incretin-based therapies?

Answer 32

GLP-1 agonists (e.g., semaglutide) and DPP-4 inhibitors.

Question 33

What is the MOA of SGLT2 inhibitors?

Answer 33

Increase glucose excretion in urine.

Question 34

What are adjunctive therapies for pre-diabetes?

Answer 34

Diet, exercise, metformin, statins, and ACE inhibitors.

Question 35

What is the first-line treatment for Type II diabetes?

Answer 35

Lifestyle interventions and metformin.

Question 36

What are second-line treatments for Type II diabetes?

Answer 36

Sulfonylurea, TZD, or DPP-4 inhibitor.

Question 37

What are third-line treatments for Type II diabetes?

Answer 37

SGLT2 inhibitors, GLP-1 agonists, or basal insulin.