Developmental👶🏼 Flashcards
Theory of mind
And rock paper research
Ascribe mental states to self and others, understand they don’t always reflect reality
Challenging in new scenarios, interpretation can depend on background knowledge
-rock paper scissors winners stick with winning action
Mental states timeline
9 months look longer when adult reaches for a new toy (understand adult’s goal)
12 months shared mutual gaze, Protodeclarative pointing
18 months mental awareness: name object ‘modi’ and gave adult broccoli even though child prefers crackers
2yrs- contrast desires (I don’t like it but he does)
3yrs- “think” and “know”
Developing belief ability
4 yrs understand others beliefs
3-5yrs explicit mental state understanding
6yrs complex beliefs
When is insight apparent
Mental states differ from others’
Answer could have been based on self and happens to share common opinion
False belief tasks
Cannot substitute own beliefs for other character’s
Unexpected transfer tasks-asked character’s belief, object hidden without them knowing (5yr olds pass)
Unexpected content task- ask what you thought, another would think was in there (3yr can’t predict)
Second order theory of mind 6yrs
Research
Theory theory- Piagetian experiments
Update theory with evidence, understand false beliefs
False photograph test, move object from frame after (same as false belief without mental state component) ask where object was in room AND is in photo- 5yr pass both
Factors influencing theory of mind acquisition
Siblings- more likely pass false belief task age 3/4. Older siblings social interaction
Family- talks about mental state more success
Culture- same order: emotions, desires, beliefs
Executive function-those with better inhibitory control do better
Violation of expectancy task and inconsistencies in research
Look longer when adult reaches for object that has been swapped
Understands false beliefs BUT 3yr olds were seen to be poor at it previously : TWO SYSTEMS
Fast and simple- automatic and inaccurate
Slow and implicit- develops later around 4, acknowledge false beliefs
Symbols
Stands in for something (word, pic, gesture)
Think about objects without holding every aspect in the mind
Arbitrary- no resemblance to referent
Iconic-looks like referent
Symbols development timeline
And research
9 month- attempt to suck bottle photo (utilisation)
18month-understand symbols differ from referents
Select real whisk not photo it was paired with
Moving word task- 3yr say dog when word placed by dog but teddy when move dog teddy
Moving number task-understand numbers are fixed, answer correctly
Dual representation
And research
Regard entity in own right e.g. paper and as what it represents e.g. dog. Perform better if less salient
Scale model search task-model corresponds to room, hide object
3yr old can find object in real room
Strategic reasoning task-asked to give away small or big sweets. 3yrs struggle to focus away from reward. Better if symbolic
Neonate
Infant less than one month old
Ways to study child development through mother
Indirect: sounds on abdomen, mother report movement
Direct: ultrasound, fMRI
Prenatal periods
Germinal-8-10 days single cell zygote, morula to blastocyst. Attachment to uterine wall
Embryonic- up to 8th week primitive organs, sexual differentiation, respond to stimulation
Fetal period- 9th week until birth, early vertebrate,
Gastrulation 3 distinct germ layers
Germ layers
Ectoderm-brain, nervous system, skin. Neural plate, differentiates to forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
Mesoderm- heart, sex organs, bones, muscles
Endoderm-inner lining of systems,organs
Formation of the brain (ectoderm)
3-4 weeks- neural groove to neural tube and brain and spinal cord
5-6 weeks- neural tube differentiates to forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
7-14 weeks- clear division of hemispheres
6 month- nerve cell generation complete, cortex wrinkles, myelination
9 month- visually like adult brain
Phases of brain development: neural plate induction
Phase 1
Ectoderm induced by growth factors, neurons proliferate
Totipotent: zygote divides to produce all cells of body
Pluripotent: blastocyst, some are differentiating embryonic stem cells
Multipotent: neural tube develops, to any nervous system cell
Phases of brain development: neural proliferation
Phase 2
Generation of many cells
Anterior swelling becomes forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
Phases of brain development: migration
Phase 3
Soma and immature axon, differentiates when migrates
Radial glial cells act as scaffolding for neurons to travel
Growth cones controlled by chemical attractants and repellants
Phases of brain development: axon growth and synapse formation
Phase 4
Synaptogenesis- chemical signal between pre and post synaptic neuron
Needs glial cells
Phases of brain development: cell death and rearrangement
Phase 5
40-70% die, can’t compete for neurotrophins for growth
Normal and necessary
Myelination- Motor myelinated before sensory. Begins in spinal cord, down craniogradual gradient to brain and cerebral cortex as mobility increases
Brain wiring- neurons and synapses connect, synaptic pruning
Fragile x syndrome
Defective gene suppresses pruning, neural noise
Causes MR and ADD
Cerebral cortex development
9 weeks- hemispheres
4 months- cells in cortex proliferate and migrate
6 months- cortex surface forms sucli and gyri, basic memory
External stimulation of neural networks
Touch
First to develop
Move towards facial touch in womb
Touch self, uterine wall, umbilical cord
Smell and taste
Smell followed by taste
Swallow and inhale amniotic fluid
Turn head to odourants in mother’s diet
Increased foetal swallowing to alcohol, later preference
Selectionary response to own amniotic fluid and mother’s colostrum and breast milk
Balance: vestibular system
Position relative to gravity
Sensed by three fluid filled canals in inner ear
Fluid moves to hairs in hairs for brain to process
Preterm babies rocked in incubator to stimulate
Sight
5 weeks- balloon structures, fold to two layer cup retina develops
2 months- lens develops, eye muscles
9 weeks-optic nerve cross over
5-7 month- REM, open eyes
30 weeks- can see patterns if born preterm
Hearing
6 weeks- auditory system
9 weeks- cochlea develops
14 weeks- vestibular system starts to work
25 weeks- detects vibrations of mother’s voice and heartbeat
Transnatal learning
Learning during prenatal period and remembered during postnatal period
35 weeks- learning/habituation
Learn sounds in utero, prefer mother’s voice and suck more to activate it (preterm babies do not show this)
4 days old- Discriminate language from foreign
Risks to foetal development
Chromosomal abnormalities increases with maternal age
Social function impairments increased with paternal age, could be from DNA myelination abnormalities in sperm
Inherited gene disorders
Maternal stress- premature birth but can be beneficial
Nutrition- low nutrition premature birth and low weight
Syphilis- liver damage, impaired eyesight and vision
Teratogens- environmental contaminants: drugs, alcohol, smoking
Teratogens
Smoking- increased spontaneous abortion, nicotine causes abnormal growth of placenta. Behavioural problems with attention
Alcohol- leading cause of mental retardation, fetal alcohol syndrome underdeveloped brain
Drugs- low birth weight, born addicted to heroin
Factors affecting teratogenic principles
Stage of development
Psychological state of mother
Teratogen concentration
Puberty
Vulnerable to risk behaviour with peers
Universal sequence, onset from 8-15 years
Stops at menopause for women, persists for men
Maturity based on limbic structures and hypothalamus
Adolescence
10-24
How is puberty triggered
Gonadotropin releasing hormone stimulates pituitary gland Releases leutenising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone.
Signal sex hormones to be released to sex organs
Sex hormones bind to ventral striatum, amygdala, cortex changing emotional response
Menarche and spermarche
Menarche: the term for a girl’s first period. It signals that ovulation has begun (although is often irregular for a few years)
Spermarche: the term for a boy’s first fejaculation, which signals sperm production has begun
Proof of puberty triggers
Immature gonads or pituitary gland transplanted to adult matures immediately, reproductive function
Altering hypothalamus/limbic system prevents prepubertal animal developing normal reproduction
Primary and secondary sex characteristics
Primary- directly involved in reproduction: testicles and ovaries
Secondary- not for reproduction: body hair
Factors affecting puberty onset
Girls ahead by months or years Genes and ethnicity effect Obesity quickens Stress quickens Malnutrition delays
Early maturing girls and boys
Girls- at risk of parental conflict, bullying, early sexual activity and substance use
Boys- more socially poised and respected but less empathy
Puberty changes in wellness and body rhythms
Lymphoid system (tonsils) decrease in size. Less susceptible to asthma and colds, oily skin
Body rhythms change, stay up and rise later
Puberty changes in the brain
Reduced grey matter in cortex myelination increases white matter
Visual and somatosensory mature first, higher order (frontal cortex) later, Subcortical regions mature before cortical
More sensitive to dopamine, oxytocin
Amygdala and hippocampus increase in size, basal ganglia decreases
Hall storm and stress
Adolescents heightened levels of emotion, uncontrollable turmoil
BUT not inevitable
Maturational imbalance model
Imbalance between hyper-activated early maturing limbic system with late developing prefrontal cortex control system (inhibits processes)
Causes specific behaviours e.g. risk taking
Adolescents responding to stimuli
Appetitive- sucrose water
Aversive- salt water
Hyper responsive compared to adults
Heightened attention to reward and threat (Activated ventral striatum)
Substance use disorders adolescents
Alcohol abuse 16-19
Cannabis 18-19
Cocaine 21-24
Psychotic disorders adolescents
Earlier male onset, smoking marijuana greater risk
Rats impaired synaptic plasticity and structural changes
Endocannabinoid system role in brain maturation, over activation (THC) causes long lasting changes
Nature and nurture substance abuse adolescents
Relevance of genetic factors on alcohol use increases with age, environmental factors decrease,
Extent to which genetics affect determined by environment, peer networks and community
Adolescent perception of ambiguous figures and attention
Perception-4-11 yr see one figure (less flexible)
Young teens see both, more flexible
Attention- allocate attentional resources to one topic, better selective attention on adolescents (ignore irrelevant info)
Processing speed
Time for brain to receive output info/speed mental calculations carried out. Partially driven by white matter maturation
Processing speed tasks
Cross out us test- match shapes to stimulus
Matrix reasoning and block design- VSS ability
Analysis synthesis- solve missing parts of puzzle
Concept formation-identify geometric rule
Memory in childhood (encoding switch hypothesis)
Rapid development of face processing (adult level 16)
Different info about faces represented in memory at different times.
Children rely on individual features while adults on configuration
STM tasks
SPAN TASK- items presented rapidly, repeat as soon as possible
SPATIAL SPAN TASK- blocks presented in arrangement, asked to repeat
STM improves throughout childhood: neurological changes and stimuli familiar. Better WM in adolescence
Memory strategies
Young- rehearsal
Older kids- chunking, more elaborate organisation strategy
Types of plasticity
Experience dependent plasticity- ability to learn
Experience expectant plasticity-neural activity from stimulation
Adolescence and infancy are sensitive periods for experience expectant plasticity
Luciana 9-20 yr results memory
Spatial info 11-12 years
Manipulate spatial units 13-15
Self organisation 16-17
Recognition and memory did not develop over this age
IQ stability
Rapid expansion linguistics but IQ stable across age
IQ may be more stable when older, poor IQ correlation as a child (more context dependent factors) doesn’t distinguish between fluid and crystallised intelligence
IQ tests teens
Wechsler’s intelligence scale for children 6-16
Verbal and performance scale
Teens perform better than children, abilities develop rapidly
Fluid and crystallised intelligence
Crystallised- store info, skills, strategies acquired through education and experience
Fluid-reason, think abstractly. Measured in culture free tasks
Tested separately-crystallised intelligence increases rapidly in adolescence. Fluid decreases from 20s
The Flynn effect
Average 3 IQ points per decade, biggest growth fluid intelligence. Genetics cannot explain
Environmental factors- Enchanted nutrition, Health, quality and access of education, reduced family size, complex society, technology
Deductive and inductive reasoning
Deductive- general premises draw specific conclusions from (all cows fly, Bertha is a cow so can fly)
Inductive-specific premise draw general conclusion (Bertha,Daisy,Mabel can fly, they are only cows on farm, all cows on the farm can fly)
Adults and children inductive and deductive reasoning
Some adults struggle deductive, easier to reason about UNIVERSAL (all) than PARTICULAR quantifier (some)
Deductive develops during adolescence, easier with a concrete form
Preschoolers show deductive when material is familiar, rely less on content. Understand both by 13 years
Analogical reasoning
Solve problem by comparing it to similar problem solved previously (A is to B as C is to D) requires abstraction
9-10 simple reasoning understood
12 solve if concrete
13-14 understand abstract
Second order analogies
Requires use of crystallised intelligence, derive relationship that is not inherent to make connections
Not solved reliably until 16-17
Formal operational Piaget
Age 12+ final stage
Abstract thought, reality one of many possibilities, imagine mathematical calculations, hypothetical reasoning (theories explain phenomena, test)
INTERPOSITIONAL thinking-relate parts to others to solve problems
Concrete operational Piaget
May need to draw pictures to solve problems
INTRAPOSITIONAL thinking- concrete symbols
Formal operational reasoning research
Balance differently weighted blocks
Concrete no success but wouldn’t abandon original hypothesis
Formal (teens) gave up original hypothesis when wasn’t working
Inhelder tasks and findings
Balance scale task- predict movement of scale, only adolescents consider weight and distance
Pendulum task-how string length influences pendulum speed
Formal operational test hypothesis systematically
Inhelder and Piaget criticisms
Follow up studies fail to replicate
Only small proportion of teens show formal operations and some never reach
Culture and education effects it
Formal operations domain specific
Piagetian task- teen test performance (age, culture, student)
Older teens more open to training in logical reasoning
Physics students did well
Cultures where scientific thinking not emphasises perform poorly but greater cognition in other areas
Steiger balance task analysis
Few adolescents used advanced rule (inconsistent with Piaget)
Thinking may become rule based (domain specific) instead
Cross generation combinatory thought
Gains across generation (permutation, pendulum, mechanical curve) but same in conservation task
Related to Flynn effect
Adolescents as intuitive scientists contradictions
Tasks largely failed by 12 year olds and undergrads
When shown answer refused to admit mistake, incorrect theory (not lack of evidence) led to incorrect predictions
Kids and teens common flaws in thinking
Fail to separate their opinion and evidence, search for confirmatory evidence
Don’t abandon when contradicted
Need a plausible alternative to accept other
5 characteristics of adolescent thinking
Possibilities (not just present) Systematic hypothesis testing Plan ahead, think of future Introspection (metacognition) Context of thought (moral, social)
Risky Adolescent vs adult thinking research
Exploratory decision making- Gambling task improves during adolescence
Not as good in making decisions based on past outcomes
Tower of London task (strategic planning) better performance late adolescence, better working memory and impulse control
Characteristics of social development
GROWTH- new skills, emotions and function
DIFFERENTIATIONS- range of activities, behaviours, larger individual differences
SYNTHESIS-integrate new knowledge, fulfilling adulthood of done well
Goals of development and 5 domains
Autonomous, emotionally regulated, Sense of self and identify,
Form close relationships with peers
DOMAINS (social environment, puberty, family, peer group and self)
Hull and development
Sequences development according to evolutionary timeline. Retract species development (phylogeny) in their growth (ontogeny)
Human embryos have slits in neck like fish, more primitive areas maturing before recent (cognitive)
LEADS TO STORM AND STRESS struggle to shed primitive ways
Education could suppress phylogeny
Hull criticisms
Exaggerated effect
Not universally a difficult time
Stress may not be negative
Lewin’s field theory
Psychological experiments can be experimented on
Behaviour = interactions between person and environment
Forces across time and space between individual and environment creates dynamic field
Lifespace dynamics
Map of lifespace- person, available goals and barriers. Factors influence behaviour. Regions separated by boundaries
(needs and perceptions) region activated when try and solve problem
Represent forces acting on individual (move towards or away from goal)
Field theory conflicts
Different goals compete for individual’s locomotion e.g. study vs party
Goals have both positive and negative values e.g. job offer but far away
Adolescent’s life space
Locomotion towards cognitively unstructured regions
Familiar regions change e.g. body
Susceptible to behavioural patterns, regions become more numerous and less permeable
Must change group membership, social locomotion (transition from child to adult) may be prone to instability
Time management
And risks
Outdirected time-external goals, work
Other people directed time- social
Inner directed time-hobbies
Non directed time-relaxation
Girls more social relationships, boys more passive
At risk if more non directed time, less external goals
Gender, race and rural time management
Black/white similarities but differences in inner directed types
Black-less gender differences, instruments
Differences- values, basketball vs the mall
Rural youth-more boredom, delinquency and substance use, low self esteem more non directed time
Teens trends in time alone
Most teens spend most time alone (exercise/study)
Interact with peers, community and family
Hungary: more with family
Netherlands: more alone
Identity vs confusion stage
5th stage of ego, not exclusive to adolescence
Conflict about who you are and your personal identity. Successfully complete the stage = strong sense of self through life
Identity and role confusion definition
Identity- who you are, values and direction in life. Drives relationship and career
Role confusion- weak sense of trust, little autonomy or initiative. Little exploration in adolescence. Vocation may not match interests and skills
Adolescent changes in self concept and self esteem
Self concept- depends on context later, organised and combined
Self esteem-rises from mid to later adolescence. Affected by Pubertal timing (early for girls, late for boys), Child rearing style,
Social environment
Identity statuses
Identity achieved- higher self esteem, moral and open to ideas, feel in control
Identity foreclosure- passive in identity concerns, inflexible. Resist info that threatens stability
Identity diffusion- believe in fate and luck, avoidance cognitive style. Risk for depression
Adolescent egocentrism
Inability to distinguish between perception of others and reality
Focus on own perceptions, psychological metamorphosis
Believe others are as attentive to behaviour as self
Mental constructions of adolescent egocentrism
Imaginary audience-believe others are watching
Personal fable- believe special and invulnerable (confidence vs recklessness)
Factors that affect identity development
Personality- confident to pursue goals
Family-secure base
Peers-trusting, supportive
School, community- promote development opportunities
Moral development
Heteronomous morality (stage 1) younger children see justice and rules as interchangeable
Autonomous morality (stage 2) older children laws are created by people. Consider intentions and consequences Tied to formal operational thought
Hoffman cognitive disequilibrium theory
Adolescents recognise their beliefs are one of many-debates on what is right or wrong
Influences of moral reasoning
Personality- flexible and open minded Child rearing- authoritative Peers-different views Culture-industrialised=acquired faster Schooling- stimulating and challenging
Identity development in ethnic minorities
Additional challenges, accumulative stress (conflict between culture and host country)lower self esteem over differences in independence
Bicultural identity- explore and adopt values from both cultures
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development: 3 types
Preconventional- no internalisation of moral value. Children worry about punishment from those with more power
Conventional-abide by standards of others. Concerned with meeting external social expectations
Post conventional-internalised morality, universal ethical principles
Influence on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Cognitive development
Modelling (how others cope)
Peer relations
Negative evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Moral reasoning may not lead to normal behaviour in real world
Excludes other values e.g. caring
Culturally biased, happens at different rates
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development sex differences
Recent disputes
Women score lower (better at interpersonal care, rated lower)and males better at justice orientation rated higher
Concluded males developed quicker and to greater degree
Gillian- different moral development. Integrate complementary male justice and female to reach potential
Recent studies show no gender difference however
Moral identity
Degree morality is central to self concept
Strengthened: inductive discipline, opportunities for civic engagements. Parents enforce compassion for those less fortunate
Extra curricular activities-induce social change, democratic schooling
Religion- those who remain have lower delinquency, alcohol, early sex
Gender typing in adolescence
Gender stereotypes increase
Parenting for adolescent development
Authoritarian- obedience, punishment
Permissive- no rules
Uninvolved-little guidance or attention
Authoritative-IDEAL, rules and positive. More likely to identify with parents and imitate warm people, moral
Pubertal maturation has increased emotional distance with parents
3 elements in parenting and adolescence development
Warmth- responsiveness, degree of affection and acceptance = competence
Structure- demandingness, extent rules exist =fewer behavioural problems
Autonomy support-encourage independence=less distress
Family strain
Less than 10% strained with parents
Resilience if develop well despite it
Friendships in adolescence
Best friends decline, intimacy more important, disclose less to friends and more to partner or parents. Same sex friends more common
Girls- emotional closeness, communal concerns
Boys- more variable, status and achievement
Closeness can lead to corumination and anxiety
Social media and adolescent friendships
Meet new people, explore concerns in less threatening contexts
Calling/texting but if used too much is unhappy
See social media neither negative or positive effect on people their age
Cliques and crowds
Cliques- 5-8 members. Similar attitudes, family background, more important for girls
Crowds-several cliques, membership based on reputation, stereotype
Identity in school structure, modify behaviours, beliefs, decline in importance as dating increases
Dating in adolescence
Begins from cultural expectations
Younger= recreation, group activities
Later=more intimate
Too young= drug use, delinquency
10-20% dating violence, lesbian/gay youth especially
Delinquency
11% arrests are adolescent FACTORS: Parenting Low socioeconomic status Peer pressure Literacy Lack of parental guidance Population increase
Preventing and treating delinquency
Preventing early at multiple levels
Intense/lengthy training parents in communication, discipline
Experience to improve social skills, cognition
Zero tolerance NOT effective
Good research practice
Claims should be verifiable, referenced
Data may have been interpreted
Own beliefs may affect his claims are evaluated
Triple p positive parenting program
Evidence based intervention program:
Improve parenting skills, competence, prevention. Combines learning strategies
Whole community rather than specific problem groups
Integrate access to support services, active skills training and support
Dissemination of triple p
Uptaken and used by service providers rather than success of intervention itself
Uptake by service providers, quality of program, training and post training
Manageable in the institution
Internal advocate of the program
Elements of dissemination
Who-source What-message Which-channel to communicate through Whom-audience Effect-purpose, destination of communication
Adopting innovative behaviour
Knowledge- present innovation
Persuasion- argue why innovation is good to use
Decision-consumer accepts or rejects
Implementation-consumer uses
Confirmation-review innovation, decides whether to continue
Why hard to change policies
Getting research published can be more than 10 years Study and analysis Write manuscript, submit Peer review, feedback and changes Manuscript accepted Published online, later in paper Delay=less time for replication File drawer problem=non significant findings less likely published
Reducing misconceptions
Aware of audience (fellow scientists, laypeople policy makers)
Explain concepts that target audience may not know
Avoid misleading reader by omitting info/one sided
Aware most readers will not understand statistical analysis which results are based on
Respond to wrong statements or quotes by writing research
Active contributor in debates around topic
Teach others how to interpret findings
Psychological moratorium
Trying out different aspects of identity without committing
Memory in childhood
Glasses research
Children fail to identify without person’s glasses, encode non essential info
8 year olds accurate as adults on facial expressions and lip reading but 10 year worse than adults on matching head orientation
Female advantage in face memory but not perception
