Cognitive🔢 Flashcards
Processes of memory
Encode (info enters memory or slips away)
Storage (preserved for recollection in future or forgotten)
Retrieval (info recollected on tip of tongue)
Memory taxonomies
Multiple models that categorise memories
Modal model of memory
TIME
Input➡️sensory memory ➡️STM ➡️⬅️LTM
Sensory memory
Research
The Senses, modal special 250-500 ms iconic
Spelling partial report method- shown part of whole grid, report one row or whole grid. Recall perfectly with tone, late capacity
STM
Increased by rehearsal and chunking
30-60s duration
Miller- 7 +/- 2 capacity
LTM
Transferred STM to LTM by rehearsal loop
Retrieved LTM to STM
Unlimited duration and capacity
Working memory
Combines Modal Model and LTM systems
Focus attention of different info and processing to anticipate next steps
Manipulate info in STM: active rehearsal and chunking
Maintain info while distracted
Reading span task- true or false sentence and remember last word in sentence: duration 3s (shorter than STM) and 3-5 capacity
Long term memory systems CONTENT
LTM (Decarative and Non declarative)
Declarative explicit - episodic and semantic
Non declarative implicit- procedural and other e.g. conditioning
Declarative and non declarative
Declarative- aware of, can express
Non-declarative- difficult to bring to awareness and express
Multicomponent model
CE (coordinates storage systems)
VSS PL (separate storage for visual/auditory info) EB (bind multimodal info to episodic memories)
LTM (transfer between WM and LTM)
Memory in brain areas (Lashley)
Search for engram (neural representation of a memory)
Side of lesion predicted memory performance
Distributed memory areas
Areas of the brain and specific memory functions
Frontal cortex- working memory
Cortex-distributed memory storage
Cerebellum- form implicit memory
Hippocampus- form explicit memory
Amygdala- form implicit and emotional memory
Temporal- spatial memory and episodic storage
Mental time travel
Re construct personal events from the past, imagine possible future scenarios, early memories
Chronesthesia
Reminiscence bump
Superior memory for events from adolescence
Childhood amnesia less than five years
Measuring memory:
Types of recall and recognition
Recall:
FREE (as many as can)
SERIAL (in order)
CUED (help of cues)
Recognition (verify of probe matched memory)
Measuring memory:
Indirect memory task
Incidental encoding (not conscious) and implicit retrieval (seemingly unrelated)
Improving encoding:
3 Levels something can be encoded
Structural (what looks like)
Phonetic (if word rhymes)
Category (type of word)
LTM is coded deeper, connects with knowledge already stored
Improving encoding:
Spacing effect and varying cues
Better memory after distributed practice
Longer spacing-better memory
Varied retrieval cues changes circumstance (mood, environment) stored with material
Improving encoding:
Serial position
Info encoded first or last remembered better
Primacy- no interference, deeper processing
Recency- STM retrieval
Improving retrieval: Testing effect (re study vs recall)
Recall after 5 mins better with re study
Recall after 2 days/week better with recall
Improving memory:
Encoding specificity
Better retrieval when context at encoding and retrieval is same
Improving memory:
Transfer appropriate processing
Match processing of encoding and retrieval aids episodic memory
Semantic memory network:
Collins and Quillian’s hierarchical network
Not economical to separately store representations
Representations: activation between nodes and their connecting paths
Superordinate, basic, subordinate
Semantic memory network:
Collins and Loftus network
Semantic relatedness between words
Theories of categorisation:
Prototype theory
and criticisms
Metal representation average of all members. Common and distinctive features
Cannot explain how people can tell the size of categories e.g. dog breeds
Can not explain how members are added to category
Theories of categorisation:
Classical
And Criticisms
Semantic memories form representations
Make predictions, extract features
Family resemblance- different members of category can share different features
Central tendency-categories have an averaged ideal but some deviate
Graded membership- some members more typical
Theories of categorisation:
Exemplar theory
And Criticisms
Separate representations of physical features of examples (seen before) Can tell category size can add new members
Theoretical circularity-how can people retrieve all members to define category it’s based on category membership initially
Can not explain how categories without features are formed
Theories of categorisation
Explanation based theory
Common characteristics rather than physical features
Can be created ad hoc (waterfowl can swim so have webbed feet)
Measuring categorisation tests
Typicality rating- how good of an example from category it is
Exemplar production-recall as many items from category as you can
Category membership verification-asked if fits the category or not
Schemata
Capture commonly encountered aspects of life, predictions
Schemas= order of events temporally ordered
5 primary schema processes
Selection Abstraction Interpretation Integration Reconstruction
Schema processes: selection
Select info central to schema
Study text without context, with context before or with context after
Those told context before recalled the most
Encoding of schema relevant info
Schema processes: abstraction
Objects consistent to schema are retrieved
7 or 4 looks like either
Ambiguities are converted to abstract representation that captures the meaning and consistent with schema
Schema processes: interpretation
Filled gaps with schema consistent info
“Dropped the glass”
Most assumed dropped glass dropped glass was broken
Schema processes: integration
Permissible inferences
Chair on box to right of tree, infer chair to right of tree
Infer chair to right of tree
Integrate schema, schema consistent holistic representations
Schema processes: reconstruction
Meet own schema
Reconstruct Native American tale to meet own cultural schema
Details reconstructed, simplified
Participants recalled items in waiting room of postgrad that wasn’t there
Schacter’s seven sins of memory
Transience Absentmindedness Misattribution Blocking Bias Amnesia Persistence Suggestibility
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: TRANSCIENCE
Decay and research
DECAY- forgetting over passage of time
Thorndike’s law of disuse: memory decays with longer time it isn’t used
Rows of nonsense trigrams, most forgetting is early and continues slowly
BUT passage of time causes nothing itself, correlated with forgetting
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: TRANSCIENCE
Interference and research
INTERFERENCE- forgetting from memory competition
Proactive- older memories impair retrieval of new
Retroactive- newer memories impair retrieval of old
Brown-Peterson paradigm- learn trigrams then recall after distracting task (varying hours) better memory with less retroactive interference, remembered if go straight to sleep
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: ABSENTMINDEDNESS
Lapses of attention that affect memory
In lecture almost half has task unrelated thoughts, caused poorer results in test
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: BLOCKING
Info present but temporarily inaccessible
Resolving tip of the tongue may prevent it recurring later
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: MISATTRIBUTION Source monitoring (where memories come from)
Attribute memories to incorrect source
Internal-real/imagined
External- who told you
Reality- real or heard about
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: MISATTRIBUTION
Source info types
Perceptual- detail highly if memory actually experienced
Contextual- context memory acquired is consistent with expected source
Affective-emotional reaction
Cognitive- mental processing of info
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: MISATTRIBUTION
Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm
People falsely recall semantically similar words that were never presented
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: SUGGESTIBILITY
Implement memory which never occurred
25% falsely remember lost in a mall
50% falsely remembered doctored photograph
More false beliefs when encouraged to guess, 20% forced confabulation, especially with confirmatory feedback
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: BIAS
Distort past memories based on current knowledge and beliefs
Hindsight bias- misremember memories as being more similar to current knowledge
Recall German election result as more similar to real results that what predicted at first
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: PERSISTENCE
Unwanted recollections that cannot be forgotten
Schacter’s seven sins of memory: AMNESIA
Deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease or trauma
Can encode new memories but not explicitly retrieve them (HM)
Retrograde-cannot access memories prior to event
Anterograde- loss of ability to store new memories after the event
Eyewitness memory (recognition/recall)
Memory for crime or other dramatic or witnessed event
Recognition- identify from mugshots
Recall- statement or testimony
Loftus and Palmer
‘Smashed’ 2x more likely to say yes to broken glass than hit
Post event information
3 explanations
Memory replacement theory- overwrites original
Blocking theory-original info blocked but still present, retroactive interference
Source monitoring- info from other sources mistaken for real memory
Loftus- Questioning with consistent misleading info (stop/yield sign) asked with sign seen vs other sign
Misleading info alters memory
Effects of implicit social demands on memory
Watch video with tonic vs alcohol placebo, read info with or without misinformation
Those thinking they drank alcohol were more susceptible to misinformation
Effects of stress on memory (navy personnel)
Navy personnel, group speech with or without doctored video
Interrogate with or without photo
Questionnaire with or without misinformation
All led to false memories, 84% misidentified unrelated photo as interrogator
