Development Multiple Choice Test

Question 1

Cross-sectional research

Answer 1

Research one specific group, or compare two or more specific groups at the same time. PROS: It’s easy to control for random variables. It can be easily replicated. It is relatively inexpensive. It is good at telling you how people at different ages behave. CONS: It doesn’t show any change over time. It doesn’t account for cohort differences.

Question 2

Cohort

Answer 2

A group of people born at the same historical time.

Question 3

Longitudinal Research

Answer 3

Study the same group of people over a long period of time. PROS: You get a very large amount of info about the group. It is the only research method that can prove change over time. CONS: It is very expensive and time-consuming. It is hard to control for random variables (people moving away, dying, etc.). There is a high attrition rate.

Question 4

Attrition

Answer 4

People leaving the study

Question 5

Biographical Research

Answer 5

Also known as retrospective research, when you study the impact of an event in someone’s life after it happened. PROS: You can find out about unexpected phenomena. CONS: Memory is pretty unreliable as we may remember the event incorrectly. We also cannot account for many variables that influence up until the point of interest in the matter.

Question 6

Jean Piaget

Answer 6

The groundbreaking developmental psychologist who tried to answer the questions, “What basic ideas do children have to know to correctly understand the world?” and “How do we learn those beliefs?” He did so by breaking down development into stages where different ideas appear in children that allow them to understand the world. He argued that we have thoughts even before learning a language. He believed children develop because of nature: we naturally progress though the stages and little can be done to influence when our thinking develops.

Question 7

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 7

A lesser-known developmental psychologist who made important contributions as well. He argued that we do not think about things that aren’t coded in language. He believed children develop because of nurture: we are fundamentally shaped by our environment because we are constantly moving into new zones of proximal development. We can do things with some help, but not entirely on our own. Once we master one concept, we get help with the next and so on.

Question 8

Object Permanence

Answer 8

The knowledge that things continue to exist even when you can’t see them anymore. This concept is critical for understanding the physical reality of our world.

Question 9

Sensorimotor Stage

Answer 9

The first stage of cognitive development that lasts from birth to age 2 where we develop object permanence. At this stage, infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activity (the five senses).

Question 10

Conservation

Answer 10

The principle that quantity remains the same even if the shape changes. This concept is critical for understanding the physical reality of our world.

Question 11

Egocentrism –> Theory of Mind

Answer 11

The understanding that other people have other points of view (literally and metaphorically). The idea that other people have their own minds that are separate from ours. This is a critical concept for interpersonal relationships. Before theory of mind develops, children are egocentric, believing that everyone sees and thinks exactly what they are thinking.

Question 12

Symbolic Thought

Answer 12

The understanding that one thing can represent something else. Ex. reading a map and knowing that the map represents a specific thing or area of the world.

Question 13

What role does language play in our development of symbolic thought?

Answer 13

Piaget thought that language was indicative of symbolic thought. He assumed that, before we can talk, we have ideas, and then words get layered on top of those ideas. Vygotsky disagreed and said that we do not think about things that are not coded in thought. **There is no way to prove whether Piaget or Vygotsky is correct

Question 14

Preoperational Stage

Answer 14

The second stage of cognitive development, lasting from age 2 to 6 or 7 where children grasp the ideas of conservation, theory of mind, and symbolic thought. This is also when a child learns to use language but doesn’t yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Question 15

Concrete Reasoning

Answer 15

A correct understanding of our physical world, but the reasoning is based in reality rather than abstraction.

Question 16

Concrete Operational Stage

Answer 16

The third stage of cognitive development, lasting from ages 7-12 where children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about events. They can comprehend math transformations and conservation.

Question 17

Abstract Thinking

Answer 17

The development of a theoretical or conceptual understanding of both earlier concepts and new concepts.

Question 18

Formal Operational Stage

Answer 18

The fourth (and final) stage of cognitive development lasting from age 12 to adulthood where people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. There is also potential for mature moral reasoning.

Question 19

Do we develop cognitively due to nature or nurture?

Answer 19

According to Piaget, we develop cognitively due to nature. He says that we naturally progress through the different stages of cognitive development (SM, P, C, F) and that there is very little that can be done to influence when our thinking develops.

On the other hand, according to Vygotsky, we develop cognitively more due to nurture. He says that we are fundamentally shaped by our environment because we are constantly moving into new zones of proximal development; when we can do or think about something with some help, but not entirely on our own. Once we master the concept, we get help with the next thing, and so on.

Question 20

Zone of proximal development

Answer 20

People are increasingly ready to learn things at certain stages of life.

Question 21

How do we know language acquisition is a function of both nature and nurture?

Answer 21

We know that language acquisition is a function of both nature and nurture because it is the complex interaction between the child’s innate (natural) capacities and the cognitive, linguistic, and social supports provided in the environment. Nature and nurture work together to help us learn, use, and understand language.

Question 22

What evidence do we have for the interplay between nature and nurture in the cognitive development of language?

Answer 22

Nature:
- We can distinguish words from other sounds and can develop a broad schema for definitions. (Ex. Young children can put together sentences they’ve never heard before. They leave out the words that are irrelevant for conveying the meaning (and, the, etc.). Most children’s early words are nouns because they are the things that are relevant for coding a child’s world.)

• We can expand our vocabulary very quickly.
  (Ex. Children know 25 words at ~15 months. By age 5, kids know 8-10,000 words which is almost all of the words you will ever know. Picking up vocabulary this quickly rarely happens for adults.)

Nurture:
- We do not develop concepts and ideas that we do not have words for
- Our words shape the way we think about vocabulary

Question 23

What evidence do we have for the interplay between nature and nurture in the linguistic development of language?

Answer 23

Nature:
- We have to learn the rules of our language

Grammar → The rules of a language. Evidence shows that we actually understand grammar rules, and we aren’t just parrots. This is seen when most grammatical mistakes go uncorrected in young children, but they clearly internalize the rules. We can tell by the mistakes they make. Ex. “runned”, “eated”, etc. We learn the grammatical rules of the language, but our ability to figure out and apply the rules is innate (natural).

Nurture:
Babies are ready to learn any language

Phonemes → Perceptual unit that composes speech. They quickly begin to focus on their native language, and by about 12 months old, babies can only “hear” the sounds that are relevant or their native language.

• We learn the patterns of speech in our language, or auditory clues that something is a question vs a statement for example, with motherese

Motherese → A high-pitched, exaggerated way of speaking that we use when we talk to babies. Babies seem to prefer it, and this suggests that it is an adaptive pattern. It slows down our speaking so that babies can learn phrasing, etc.

Question 24

What evidence do we have for the interplay between nature and nurture in the social development of language?

Answer 24

Nurture:
- Babies learn how to have conversations even before they can talk

Babble conversations → Back and forth between baby and caregiver, occurring before kids even know basic vocabulary. This seems to help shape what the child does innately (make sounds) in learned patterns of speech.

• Cultural patterns influence speech within the same language, and children learn how to USE the language differently. This impacts patterns of speech that persist over long periods of time.
• In the US, families of color are more likely to ask questions of their babies where the answer is unknown.
• In the US, white families are more likely to ask questions where the asker already knows the answer

Nature:
- Language is a fundamental part of the human experience, and it is our natural way of communicating with one another.

Question 25

Preconventional Morality

Answer 25

Starts around age 5 and goes until age 10. The child understands authority figures are in control, and therefore it is important for everyone to follow the rules. The child also wants to do what’s best for themselves.

Question 26

Conventional Morality

Answer 26

Starts around age 10 and goes until age 15. The teenager is most interested in being seen as a “good person” and wants to do good deeds that support other people. They are also aware of society as a whole and know that laws and rules are in place to keep society functioning.

Question 27

Postconventional Morality

Answer 27

Starts at 15 and goes on into adulthood. The adult is focused on the reasoning behind the laws, and whether the rationale is applicable in that particular case. There is also an ethical hierarchy that guides decision-making.

Question 28

Critiques of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

Answer 28

Cultural biases - Kohlberg took a very Western approach to creating his theory of moral development. He talks a lot about the law and rights that people have which is very prevalent in the US. Gender biases - In his early studies, he only interviewed boys of a similar age rather than starting off with a representative sample of people. Moral reasoning vs. moral behavior - Kohlberg’s theory is all about how people think about moral development, but in reality, it changes when people actually have to choose to act morally or not Stage theory limitations - Kohlberg suggests that moral development happens in stages, but some people disagree and say that moral development is not as linear as Kohlberg makes it out to be.

Question 29

Personal Fable

Answer 29

The adolescent idea that one is completely unique and the struggles to find commonalities between their experiences and the experiences of others.

Question 30

Imaginary audience

Answer 30

The false belief that everyone is watching them and caring about what they do.

Question 31

Erik Erikson

Answer 31

A psychodynamic theories who argued that at every stage of life we had a crisis that had to be resolved. The correct resolution of this crisis would lead to the ability to move onto the next stage and ultimately be happy. He focused a lot on adolescent development, believing it to be crucial for happiness in adulthood.

Question 32

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Answer 32

During this stage, adolescents engage in an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. If they develop an identity: they will emerge with a sense of confidence and ability to commit with other people even when there are ideological differences. If they end up in role confusion: they will not have a sense of where they belong in society, and ultimately will struggle to form deep and meaningful relationships.

Question 33

James Marcia

Answer 33

He argued that there are 2 axes: questioning and commitment. How much the adolescent has questioned their role and how committed they are to that role.

Question 34

Questioning

Answer 34

How much the adolescent has questioned their role

Question 35

Commitment

Answer 35

How committed they are to that role

Question 36

Identity Achievement

Answer 36

High questioning, high commitment. They have thoughts about their identity and they feel confident in it.

Question 37

Identity Foreclosure

Answer 37

High commitment, low questioning. The adolescent accepts the identity provided by others (usually parents, sometimes peers).

Question 38

Identity Moratorium

Answer 38

High questioning, low commitment. They leave the “socially acceptable” period of adolescence without an answer to the question “Who am I”, but they are still actively searching.

Question 39

Identity Diffusion

Answer 39

Low questioning, low commitment. They do not seem to realize that they need to become an adult. They live in a state of perpetual adolescence and they often turn to drugs or alcohol.

Question 40

Generativity

Answer 40

Creating and accomplishing things that make the world a better place. Being invested in family, and contributing to the future somehow.

Question 41

Stagnation

Answer 41

Being stuck in a rut. Being focused on your own needs, and failing to get involved with others.

Question 42

Childrearing pros

Answer 42

- You get to raise your own children and build a family - Always having your family around

Question 43

Childrearing cons

Answer 43

- Your relationships with your spouse it at its worse - Lots of laundry, dishes, and meals to cook - Must follow the children’s schedule - less freedom - Loud house

Question 44

Empty nest pros

Answer 44

- Peace and quiet time - Improved relationship with spouse - More freedom - Less dishes and laundry and meals to cook - Reconnect with friends and community

Question 45

Empty nest cons

Answer 45

- Worrying about children - Being around whole family a lot less - No control over what your kids do

Question 46

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross

Answer 46

Started writing about end-of-life themes in the 1960s, a time when dying patients were typically put into far-off hospital rooms and left alone to die. In some cases, the patients were never told that their condition was terminal. She argued that American culture is death-denying, meaning we do not like to acknowledge or talk about death, and we avoid aging. She studied the way diverse cultures of the world approached the issue of death. She was deeply critical of the way ‘Western’ society manages end-of-life decisions and customs. She hoped Americans would become death-affirming, meaning they would recognize death as a natural part of life, and have an awareness of our mortality - something to be embraced. She celebrated examples like Dia De Los Muertos and believed that people should be involved in their end of life decisions. She argued that the more control we have when it comes to the end of our own life, the more comfortable and calm we tend to be.

Question 47

Death-denying Culture

Answer 47

We do not like to acknowledge or talk about death, and we avoid aging.

Question 48

Death-affirming Culture

Answer 48

When we recognize death as a natural part of life, and we have an awareness of our mortality as something to be embraced.

Question 49

Stages of grief

Answer 49

Denial, bargaining, anger, depression, acceptance

Question 50

Denial

Answer 50

You begin to think life has no meaning, and you become numb to everything. You are in a state of shock, and you cannot accept the reality of what is happening. This causes you to live in a “preferable” reality. Denial helps us cope with grief by handling only so much of it at once.

Question 51

Bargaining

Answer 51

You may start to make deals with God or falsely make yourself believe that you can avoid grief by doing this. You are willing to do just about anything to get your life back to the way it was. You experience guilt and start asking yourself “What if…?” questions that can’t be answered.

Question 52

Anger

Answer 52

You look to blame others for the cause of grief and wonder why this is happening to you. You may start to question your spiritual beliefs. Your anger binds you to reality, and it connects you with other people whom you decide to direct your anger towards.

Question 53

Depression

Answer 53

You will feel numb and live in a fog that blocks you from experiencing life. You are overwhelmed by the world, and you develop a feeling of hopelessness. Isolating oneself and experiencing suicidal thoughts are common because life feels pointless.

Question 54

Acceptance

Answer 54

The understanding that you have experienced a loss, but you will be okay. You come to terms with what the “new” reality is, and you begin to move forward. The good days start outnumbering the bad days, and the fog from depression lifts. You start reconnecting with your peers and making new relationships.

Question 55

Schema

Answer 55

A concept or framework that organizes and interepetets information.

Question 56

Assimilation

Answer 56

Interpreting our new experiences in terms out our existing schemas.

Question 57

Accommodation

Answer 57

Adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

Question 58

Attachment

Answer 58

An emotional tie with others; shown in young children by seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation.

Question 59

Familiarity

Answer 59

Forms during a critical period. It’s the level of recognition and comfort a person feels towards another individual, place, or situation due to repeated exposure and interaction.

Question 60

Body contact

Answer 60

Makes the mother feel like a secure base for the child. The rocking, warmth, and feeding make the mother more appealing — not just for nourishment. Showing affection by touching boosts brain development.

Question 61

Temperament

Answer 61

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. It is impacted by heredity. Temperament affects attachment style.

Question 62

Identity

Answer 62

Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Question 63

Social identity

Answer 63

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

Question 64

Parent and peer relationships

Answer 64

- Puberty alters attachments and primes perceptions - Selection effect is the tendency for adolescents to seek out peers who are similar to them. -Parent-child arguments happen more in adolescence - Those who are close with parents do better in school - What a teenager’s friend does, they are more likely to do - Most bullying victims suffer in silence and have larger problems later in life