Development and Sustainability Flashcards
What is development? (2)
1) Development is a contested concept that generally refers to efforts aimed at improving the quality of life.
2) It involves transitioning from perceived unfavorable conditions to more favorable ones through interventions in areas such as education, healthcare, policy, the economy, and infrastructure.
Critical Thinking - How does power influence the language we use commonly about development?
1) Power influences language through the creation of terms like “development”, “underdeveloped”, and “least developed” by creating a stereotype about a certain nation, which carries judgment.
2) These types of labels create a strictly binary view, where on one side is the model of progress, the developed economies, and the rest are deficient.
3) These labels give power to the developed countries and reinforce global hierarchies.
What are the key dimensions and approaches to understanding development?
1) Development is not one size fits all. Rather it consists of and means:
2) Human Development (Better standard of living)
3) Economic Development (Increase in GDP)
4) Sustainable Development (Less environmental harm)
5) Social Justice (Less inequalities)
What are the SDGs
A set of 17 interconnected goals, that are apart of the UN sustainable development Agenda 2030. They provide a universal blueprint (Framework) for global action to end poverty and protect the planet by 2030.
How are SDGs a comprehensive framework?
1) SDGs have a broad scope - They address diverse global issues, such as ending poverty (Goal 1), promoting quality education (Goal 4) and combating climate change (Goal 13).
2) They are interconnected in nature - This interconnected approach ensures that addressing one issue contributes to solving others, in turn, promoting holistic and sustainable development. (zero hunger and no poverty)
3) They are relevant globally - They are relevant to all nations. Their applicability to both developed and developing countries promotes a shared global commitment. Ensuring inclusivity and global relevance.
How are SDGs not a comprehensive framework?
1) Implementation Challenges - Low-income or resource-poor nations, such as Chad or Haiti, struggle to achieve goals like good health and well-being due to limited resources, inadequate healthcare systems, poor infrastructure, and insufficient funding. (spice adultration in india and how govt doesnt want to pay).
2) Lack of Consequences - There are no penalties for failing to meet development goals. A notable global example is the widespread failure of many nations to meet their climate commitments. Without consequences, progress remains inconsistent. The absence of enforcement undermines accountability, allowing countries to prioritize national interests over collective development, thereby reflecting a realist approach.
3) Need for Global Cooperation - For example, if one country implements strict climate regulations but is bordered by a nation that disregards such measures, the emissions and environmental impact from the neighboring country can hinder the first country’s progress. This highlights the necessity of international cooperation to achieve global success.
For instance, despite efforts by the European Union to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, countries like China and India, which have high emissions due to their reliance on coal, can offset these gains.
4) Economic and Cultural Clashes - Certain goals, such as gender equality, may conflict with cultural norms. For instance, after the Taliban gained control in Afghanistan, significant restrictions were placed on women’s rights, including a ban on secondary education, directly violating two key development goals.
What are development’s contradictory tensions? (4 good things) (3 bad things)
1) Development has led to a decrease in poverty.
Development reduces poverty by improving education, healthcare, and infrastructure, which enhances human capital and provides people with better job opportunities. Economic growth creates new jobs, increasing employment and income. As a result, individuals earn more, and poverty levels decrease, improving overall well-being.
2) It has brought improvements in living standards for many people worldwide
3) It has resulted in the accumulation of tremendous wealth for several states.
4) Development can also drive economic growth through job creation and increased economic output.
For example, the USA, as a developed economy, has experienced consistent GDP growth, reaching over $25 trillion in 2023.
However:
1) It has worsened inequalities both within and among states.
For example, in India, while economic development has made it the world’s 5th largest economy, wealth inequality has surged. In 2022, the top 1% of the population controlled nearly 40% of the nation’s wealth, while millions continued to live in poverty.
2) It has led to human rights abuses in some cases. Rapid development, particularly in resource extraction and industrialization, has often resulted in human rights violations. Development that prioritizes economic gains over human rights creates ethical dilemmas and sustains suffering among vulnerable populations.
3) It has contributed to global-scale crises caused by climate change due to industrialization. For example, industrialization in countries like China has driven up emissions, contributing to climate change. Events like the 2023 Pakistan floods, which displaced millions, highlight its devastating effects.
4) 1) Debt Dependency - Many LICs became heavily reliant on loans, leading to debt crises when they couldn’t repay.
For example, countries in sub-Saharan Africa faced severe economic hardships due to debt accumulation.
What was the historical context of development?
1) After World War II, many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America gained independence from colonial rule.
2) These newly independent states, however, faced several challenges, such as underdeveloped economies, a lack of basic necessities, and limited infrastructure.
3) To address these challenges, development was seen as a way to modernize these countries and help them catch up to the wealthier Western nations.
What was the European model?
It was believed that countries should follow a path similar to Europe’s historical transitions:
From traditional societies (agrarian economies, subsistence living, and minimal technology) to modern, progressive societies characterized by industrial economies, high incomes, mass production, and advanced technology.
This was essentially economic development through capitalism. Capitalism is a system where private individuals or businesses own and operate the means of production, driven by profit and market competition.
1) Industrialization was considered key.
2) High levels of consumption and technological advancements were seen as markers of success.
Assumptions of development as a solution to poverty (2)
- Economic growth was seen as the main way to reduce poverty. Industrialization (building factories and industries) was believed to boost the economy significantly. The idea was the economic growth would make resources and wealth avialable for everyone overtime.
Reality: Economic growth has often worsened income inequality, with wealth concentrated in urban elites and limited benefits for rural or marginalized communities. - Industrialization is Key:
i) Countries were encouraged to shift from agrarian (farming-based) economies to industrial economies with factories and large-scale production.
This would create jobs and decrease unemployment. Furthermore, industrialization and production of goods such as cars and electronics could you sent internationally. Generating foreign income. - Moving towards wealtheir western modernization ideology.
It was assumed that poor countries could follow the same path as rich countries by industrializing anf growing their economies.
Industrialization was expected to lead to high incomes, better access to goods and services and hence better queality of life.
Rostow suggest that countries move through predictable stages, starting from agrarian economies to eventually becoming fully “develped” and wealthy.
Reality: Not all countries can follow the same trajectry. Each country faces unique challenges, like political instability, resource limitations etc.
What is the modernization theory? (3)
1) Rostow’s Modernization Theory outlines a linear model of economic development, suggesting that all countries progress through five stages of growth as they modernize.
2) It starts with a traditional society reliant on subsistence agriculture and limited technology. Countries then move through stages of economic and social change, including technological advancements and industrialization, eventually reaching the high mass consumption stage, characterized by advanced economies with high living standards.
3) The theory assumes that development is a universal process driven by investment, innovation, and structural change.
Stages of the Modernization Theory (5)
Stage 1 - Traditional society - focused of most basic of economic activities, such as farming, and extraction industries, like mining and harvesting of timber. (agrarian society - any community whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland ). The labor force is almost completly unskilled. Scientific and technological development is primative. People rely on community bartering rather than an advanced banking system. Society is governed by small ruling elites with strong traditional values.
Rastow belives that traditional economies are generally unproductive.
Stage 2 - Preconditions of take off - A transitional stage that establishes the conditions necessary for further growth and development. At this stage science and technology starts to progress that aids in economic productivity. The savings caused by increase productivities are saved and invested in other areas, including technology and infrastructure, roads, bridges and harbours. Growing focus on exports of primary production like mining and farming and fuelling investment through surplus.
Stage 3 -Take off - A short period of intense activity where urbanisation increases and industrialisation proceeds with technological breakthrough. Huge technological advancement, development of the domestic manufacturing sector.
A handful of key new industries start to emerge in the national economy that helps drive further economic growth. For example, the development of a steel industry may drive growth in an economy with ready access to iron ore. Rostow claims that at this stage economic growth becomes the normal state of the economy. He also believed that economic growth becomes self-sustaining at this point in development.
Stage 4 - Drive to maturity - This stage takes place over a long period of time, as standards of living rise, the use of technology increases, and the national economy grows and diversifies. Range of domestic production widens, replacement of imports with domestic production/import substitution, increasing diversification and investment from home to abroad. The increasing need for innovation for a gain of efficiency in existing techniques.
stage 5 - Mass consumption - Where mass production feeds consumer demands. At the time of writing, Rostow believed that Western countries, most notably the United States, occupied this last “developed” stage. Here, a country’s economy flourishes in a capitalist system, characterized by mass production and consumerism.
Example of modernisation theory
Agent Orange - The model was used for policy purposes. The use of Agent Orange by the U.S. during the Vietnam War relates to Rostow’s Modernisation Theory. This strategy aimed to disrupt the traditional agrarian society of South Vietnam by forcing rural populations into urban areas. By destroying crops and pushing people into cities, the U.S. sought to create a larger urban labor force capable of working in factories, accelerating the country’s transition from a traditional society to a more industrialized and modern economy. This intervention aligns with Rostow’s belief in the importance of urbanization and industrialization for economic development.
What are the main criticisms of Rostow’s Modernization Theory? (summary) (3)
- Over-Simplification: Modernization theory assumes that all countries can follow a linear development trajectory similar to the Western model, without accounting for the diverse political, economic, and social contexts of different states. This approach overlooks the principle of sovereignty and state-centric approaches in international relations, as it fails to recognize that each country’s development is shaped by its unique historical, cultural, and institutional factors, making a universal model unrealistic.
- Geographic inaccountibility - Geographical inaccountability in modernization theory refers to the failure to consider the significant variations in geography, resource availability, and population dynamics across different countries. Modernization theory assumes that all countries can follow the same path to development, but it does not account for geographical factors that heavily influence a nation’s economic and social outcomes.
For example, resource availability plays a crucial role in shaping the development of a country. Nations with abundant natural resources like oil, minerals, or fertile land may have a different developmental trajectory compared to countries with fewer resource
EXAMPLE - Philippines: The Philippines is prone to frequent natural disasters such as typhoons, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, which damage infrastructure and affect agricultural output.
- Structural and Neo-Colonial Barriers:
Ignores global inequalities that keep developing countries dependent on richer nations. It supports systems like foreign aid, debt, and unfair trade deals that benefit developed countries while limiting the growth and independence of poorer nations. This creates a relationship where developed nations maintain control over resources and economies in the global south, preventing true self-reliance.
How did the flaws of Modernization Theory lead to the development of Dependency Theory, and how does Dependency Theory address them?
1) Exploitation Ignored (Modernization Flaw):
Modernization Theory failed to consider how colonialism exploited resources in developing nations.
Dependency Theory addressed this by highlighting historical colonial ties and the ongoing exploitation of cheap labor and raw materials by core nations.
2) Core-Periphery Dynamic Overlooked (Modernization Flaw):
Modernization focused on linear development but ignored global structural inequalities.
Dependency Theory addressed this by identifying a system where core nations dominate and exploit periphery nations, creating a dependency that hinders growth.
One-Size-Fits-All Approach (Modernization Flaw):
Modernization assumed all nations could replicate Western development, disregarding cultural and historical contexts.
Dependency Theory addressed this by rejecting this universal model and advocating for tailored strategies like import substitution to promote local industries.
Focus on Urbanization and Industrialization Only (Modernization Flaw):
Modernization prioritized urban growth, neglecting rural areas and widening inequality.
Dependency Theory addressed this by emphasizing sustainable development and equitable resource distribution within periphery nations.
Ignored Neo-Colonialism (Modernization Flaw):
Modernization promoted foreign aid and investment, unintentionally reinforcing dependency.
Dependency Theory addressed this by critiquing foreign aid as a tool for neo-colonial control and promoting economic self-reliance.
Problems with Dependency Theory
1) It was written in the late 1950s, making it somewhat out of date for current global dynamics.
2) Overemphasis on external factors - It is believed that the sole reason that the periphery continues to be dependant is because of the core. However, it does not account for factors like natural disasters, lack of resources, and conflict, which may limit development beyond external exploitation.
3) Limited guidance - Although there is a lot of critique on the dynamics, there is no clear guidance on how the periphery can develop.
What is the dependency theory? (3)
1) A Marxist theory based upon the ideas of Andre-Gunder Frank (1969) which suggested that Western nations kept developing nations in a state of dependency
2) Dependency theory argues that development policies continue the exploitation rooted in colonialism and slavery. Powerful nations historically used their dominance to extract resources and wealth from weaker nations, creating unequal relationships. Today, this dynamic persists through transnational corporations, often supported by governments, that maintain economic dependence and exploitation.
3) Developing nation’s wealth is based upon labor and resources of the developing world.
What are examples of modern Perspectives on Development and Poverty?
Today, development as a solution to poverty incorporates more nuanced and sustainable approaches:
1) Human Development: Focus on education, health, and well-being as core aspects of development (e.g., the Human Development Index (HDI) by the UN).
2) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Recognize that poverty reduction must balance economic, social, and environmental factors.
3) Inclusive Growth: Ensure that economic growth benefits all sections of society, reducing inequality and focusing on marginalized groups.
Key components of dependancy theory (2)
1) Core and Periphery: The world is divided into core (developed) and periphery (developing) countries. Core countries exploit periphery countries for resources and labor.
2) Unequal Exchange: Trade relations are skewed in favor of core countries, leading to a cycle of poverty in periphery nations.
Core countries export high-value goods, such as advanced technology and manufactured products, while periphery countries primarily export low-value raw materials or agricultural goods. This trade imbalance ensures that wealth and profits accumulate in the core, while periphery nations remain stuck in poverty, unable to advance economically.
What is human development?
1) Human development is often equated with social progress, requiring social and political arrangements that enable individuals to achieve their full potential.
2) It focuses on people, treating them as the main focus of policies and empowering them to actively drive their own development.
People-Centered view
1) Focuses on improving the well-being, capabilities, and freedoms of individuals.
2) Places people at the center of development, emphasizing their role as both beneficiaries and active participants in their own development.
Commodity - Centered view
1) Focuses on economic growth and the accumulation of material wealth, such as goods and services.
2) Prioritizes the production and distribution of commodities as the primary goal of development.
Factors affecting development (6)
1) Economic Factors
- Access to resources, infrastructure, trade, and investment opportunities influence growth.
- For example, countries with abundant natural resources often have an economic advantage.
2) Social Factors
- Education, healthcare, and cultural norms impact productivity and societal well-being.
- A well-educated workforce leads to higher innovation and development.
3) Political Stability
- Stable governments attract investments and provide a secure environment for growth.
- Political instability, like corruption or conflict, can hinder development.
4) Geography and Environment
- Natural disasters, climate, and location affect access to markets and resources.
- For instance, landlocked countries may face trade barriers.
5) Globalization
- Integration into global markets boosts trade and investment but can increase dependency.
6) Technological Advancements
- Access to technology accelerates innovation and economic efficiency.
