Development and Social Psychology Flashcards
Mere-exposure effect
The tendency to prefer stimuli that have been seen before over novel ones. There also is a generalized mere-exposure effect shown in a preference for stimuli that are similar to those that have been seen before.
Habituation
When participants demonstrated decreased attention (through looking or listening behavior) to repeatedly-presented stimuli.
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be directly observed (e.g., that a pen continues to exist even when it is hidden under a piece of paper).
Psychophysiology
Parent-report questionnaires
verbal report paradigms and Vignette
A short story that presents a situation that participants are asked to respond to.
Vignette
A short story that presents a situation that participants are asked to respond to.
Research methods vs Research design
research methods are the tools that are used to collect information. Research design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design dictates which methods are used and how.
attrition
Sequential research designs
A research design that includes elements of cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. Similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential research designs include participants of different ages within one study; similar to longitudinal designs, participants of different ages are followed over time.
Need to belong theory
The need to belong is as important to humans as food and shelter
In order for this need to be satisfied, two aspects of relationships must be met:
-Have POSITIVE and PLEASANT interactions with others
-Interactions in the context of being STABLE, LASTING relationships
The need to belong is not the same for everyone–> high need characterized by a strong desire to be accepted into social interactions+ strong reactions to exclusion
Satiation and Substitution
(Need to Belong Theory)
Once people have reached a certain minimum number of social contacts that have a minimum quality level, their motivation to seek new relationships diminishes. When they lose relationships, though, they may want new ones
Social Identity Theory
The groups we belong to are important to how we feel about ourselves
Social Identities: Charactersitics we share because we belong to this group, that differnetiate us from others
Personal identities: The characteristics that differnetiate us from other members of the group–> the role we play within relationships
There are three important components to the Social Identity Theory:
Categorisation
Identification
Comparison
Categorisation
(Social Identity Theory)
You are grouping other people into groups based on observable charcteristics
Identification
(Social Identity Theory)
Groups that we perceieve ourselves to belong to
Comparison
(Social Identity Theory)
In-groups and out-groups
(Social Identity Theory)
In-groups are the ones we identify with, it commands our esteem and loyalty
Out-groups are the social groups which we do not identify
Social Identity Theory states that the In-group will discriminate the out-group to enhance their self image
Group prototypes
(Social Identity Theory)
Group-prototypes are a collection of attributes used to define a particular group
Eg if all in-group members are democrats and someone doesnt vote democrat then this is strange behaviour
In-group members will act in accordance with the prototypes that define our in-group
Groups, belonging and health
When we belong to groups and indetify with them–>
- Connectedness (youre part of smth bigger)
-Purpose and worth (shared sense of purpose, members feel valued as well as their contributions)
-Social support (more likely to give and receive help to people you feel connected to eg Italians rather donate to Italy but when UK in crisis we speak of help to the “europeans” putting us all into one connected group)
More groups = better?
Having many groups is good as long as your role/ the nature of your group memberships are in accordance/in harmony with one another
harmony between identities is important, otherwise inner conflict and having many groups is no longer beneficial
Important to chose the one that fits YOUR identity, you as a person
Non-verbal behaviour and communication
Form of communication in which thoughts and feelings are sent and received without the use of words
Examples:
-Use of touch
-Facial expressions
-Gestures
-Eye gaze
-Posture
Emotions vs Moods vs Emotional conditions
Emotions:
Brief
Response to specific events
Moods:
Can last for days and sometimes even longer
Cause of moods is unclear, could be anything really
Emotional condition:
Lasting weeks, months to years
Encoding vs Decoding
Encoding: You are EXPRESSING/emitting non-verbal behaviour
Decoding: you are INTERPRETING the meaning/ behaviour from other –> eg deciding that the pat on back you just received is condescneding rather than with kind intent
Discrete vs Dimensional emotions
Discrete: Like in movie Inside Out where “fear” is separate from “disgust” or “sadness”
Dimensional: Emotions exist on a spectrum eg unpleasant to pleasant
Looking at faces/expressions: Forced Choice Paradigm?
You are told to state what kind of emotion a person is feeling based on their expression, then youre givne 5 options (not just choosing what u think it is, but rather the best out of the 5 given options)
Factors that decrease decoding accuracy: disguising/emotional surpression
People try to hide or disguse their emotions in certain situations
Factors that decrease decoding accuracy: Cultural
There are cultural “display rules” that govern what emotions people in the society are allowed to show–> governs behavioural norms in society
Example:
In US–> suspcious if someone does not look you in the eye
In Thailand, Nigeria and Puerto Rico–> direct eye contact considered disrespectful
Affiliation
Tendency to form social bonds with others
Ostracism
Exclusion of someone from a society or a group
Also a powerful threat to our needs of belonging, control and self esteem
Privacy regulation Theory
(Theories of Affiliation)
We adjust the levels/amount of time we want for ourselves eg if youve had a lot of interactions with people, u wanna calm things down so u leave ir sturday free and exerting control
Social Affiliation Model
(Theories of Affiliation)
Amount/Need of affilitation changes over time depending on our circmstances
Dunbar Number
Mainting friendhsips requires cognitive resouces–> we have a limit
According to Dunbar, we can maintain
about 150 casual relationships
out of these 50 will be good friends
of these 15 will be confidants
and of these 5 are our close support group
So if you make anew close friend, then someone from this “close friend” group will be kicked out into the lower level so to speak
Determinants of attraction: target centered
- Physical characteristics
- Similarity to self: Similar age, race, attitude, education, beliefs etc
- Reciprocity: tendency to like people who like us and dislike people who dislike us. Give back to others what you receive from them generally
- Proximity: tendency to be attracted to people we come into contact with. Proximity provides moticatioin and more liekly to meet ppl who share smth in common with u
Attractiveness ofn physical characteristics–> two theories of attractivenesss
- Dimorphism
- Averageness
Dimorphism (Theory of attractiveness)
How masculine or feminine a face is found to be
Female faces that have more feminnes features found to be more attractive for both men and women
Males have mixed evidence
Limitation: study was conducted on striaght people–> sexual orientation makes a difference
Symmetry (Theory of attractiveness)
Left and right side of the face symmetry is more attractive
Average faces also more attractive because people like familiartiy–> avwrage represents fcial features we jhave seen many times before, we develop a preference for things we have seen many times
Halo Effect–> attractiveness
“What is beautiful is good”
More attractive => higgher rating on positive and lower rating on negaitve traits
This is consistent across cultures
Attractiveness stereotype
The relationship between attractibvness and personality/intelligence/self-esteem etc
However THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP
Though there could be a self fulfilling prophecy–> people deemed more attractive might be more confident and have better social skills BECAUSE of how ppl treat them. Theyre treated that way so can act that way
Prosocial behaviour
actions that are geenrally valued b y other peoiple in a particular society
May have some benefit to the person doing it
Helping bejaviour
act where people voluntarily and intentionall behvae in a way they believe will benefit others
Altruism
specfici type of prosocial behaviour that will beneefit others without any expectation that it expected to have oersoal benefits
Evolutionary basis (why do people help)
Biologically predisposed to help others?
Young children demonstrated sympathetic arousal changes when they hekpled someone but ALSO when someone else is being helped–> humans have motivation from young age
Social Norms (why do people help?)
Reciprocity–> “Ill help you if you help me”. Increases likelihood of getting help in the future so this interaction is almost like an investment
Social responsibilty –> Helping those who are dependant on us eg children
unwritten soceital rules and expectations about behaviour that are considered appropriate and acceptable
Social justice–> we should help others who deserve help (i.e “good people” in trouble)
Modelling (why do people help?)
Obserbving and copying helping behaviour, which shows us how to behave when we come across a certain situation
BUT
We dont always act in the ways weve observed others helping AND people stil help in situations theyve never come across before
Social Exchange Theory
Its the costs and benefits of helping/relationship
Social Exchange Theory: Benefits of helping
Benefits:
+can be rewarding eg repicropicty increases the likelihood of you getting help in the future, so someone will heklp you when YOu need i
+Relief of bysrander distress: distubing to see others in distress, so to relieve our own “second hand” distress, we help, so we dont need to see experience it
+Gain rewards such as feelings of self worth and self presentation
Social Exchange Theory: Costs
Costs:
-Physical danger, pain, embarassment, rejection (they dont want ur help), time etc.
Helping behaviour decreases when costs are high
Social Exchnage Theory argues that true altruism doesnt exist becaus people will only help if benefits outweigh the costs
Empathy vs Altruism
Empathy: Ability to understand and share feelings of other person
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
When we feel empaht for a person, we will attempt to help that person
if we do not feel empathy, we will follow the Social Exchange Theory
Bystander Effect
The presence/ absence of other people will affect how likely it is that someone will help
When people believe that there are more people vaiable to help, the less likelly it is that YOU will be the one to take action
Pluralistic Ignorance
Concept relevant to the bystander effect
When a situation is ambigous, people will look around them to see what others are doing/ how they are reacting. But everyone else is also doing the same thing–> leading to no one helping out
Bystander effect decision tree
- notice the event
- Interpret as an emergency (or pluralistic ignorance)
- Assume responsibilty (or diffuse responsibilty)
- Know how to help (if you feel you dont have the kjnpwldege or skills required to help yu prpbably wont do it)
- Decide to help
People wil only help in an emergency if they successfuly go through all 5 of these steps
Nature
(Recurring debates in human development)
The hereditary information present at the moment of conception that may affect later development
Stability–> individuals high or low in a certain characteristic will remain so at later ages
Babies already primed to interact and connect with their caregivers and a lot of info and ability is already present in terms of facila recognition and discrimination of faces, facila experessions
Nurture
(Recurring debates in human development)
All external elements that may influence development
Early experiences –> powerful events in the first few years that cannot be fully overcome in later years
All humans skills cannot be innate because some skills involve human inventions
Plasticity (Recurring debates in human development)
Nature vs Nurture/ stability vs early experiences => change is possible and liekly if new expeirences support it
Continuity or Discontinuity
(Recurring debates in human development)
Continuous growth like eg plant
Child is just a small human and it grows bigger and bigger
Discontinous growth like eg butterfly, where caterpillar is siginifcantly different from the chrysalis and that itself is significantly difffernet from the butterfly
If development is discontinous like a butterfly, then children cannot be treated like mini adults as they are probably in a completely different phase than we as adults are
Active or Passive?
(Recurring debates in human development)
Rousseaus “NOBLE SAVAGE” describes the development of a child to be helpless against the corrupt and evil and insincere society. That is childhood
The TRANSACTIONAL MODEL argues that the child affects the environment as much as the environment affects the child.
Sensitive and Critical Periods
Critical Period: Significant brain development can happen if necessary experience i s availablem if not the DEVELOPMENT NOT POSSIBLE, or just very difficult
Sensitive Period: softer version of critical period–> there is a period of time where declopemtn happens more easily/better chances of it happening, but that doesnt mean it cant happen at a later stage, it will just be more difficult
Involuntary response
(Research methods in human development)
Measuring eg heart rate or brain activity
Child too young to make voluntary decisions and cannot talk to voice its opinions
Voluntary responses
(Research methods in human development)
As children develop and gain more motor control and independance, they can choose between different toys, food etc. Researches can study their behavioural choices
Standardized questionnaires
(Research methods in human development)
Asking parents/teachers to report on behalf of the child
Longitudinal (Research design in human development)
Used to study same children over longer period of time
Practice effects
High attrition
Costly
Optimal for studying stability and change
Cross-sectional
(Research design in human development)
Used to study different age groups at the same time
Faster data collection
No practice effects
Results dont promise change indicate development, only that age difference exist on average
Sequential
(Research design in human development)
Incorporates elements of both longitudinal and cross- sectional design
Children of different ages are followed over a certain amount of time
Allows researcher to examine age related and development related changes in the children as they grow and age
BPS Ethical Principles (
Ethics in studying human development)
Respect for autonomy of participant, right to privacy, making decisions
Competence: Every professional has their limits and its important for the researcher to acknowledge this and stay within their comptence/limits. Eg working with adults rather than children is also a specific competence/limit
Responsibility: researchers responsibilty to avoid causing harm to the participant, the profession, the geenral piblic (dont pblish bullsheit and make sure ur taking care of the participant well)
Integrity: Honesty, openness and trying to avoid bias
Child assent
Seeing whether the child looks sufficinetly content to proceed/take part in the experiment. If child is no longer comfrotable you must stop the experiment
Child assent
Seeing whether the child looks sufficinetly content to proceed/take part in the experiment. If child is no longer comfrotable you must stop the experiment
- Sensorimotor
(Piagets stages of cognitive development)
From birth to 2 years
- Development of means ends behaviour: If i touch this, it will make a sound or when I cry this person brings me milk–> ability to influence the person taking care of them
- Gradual sepraration of self from environment: Playing with feet like playing with a toy, no understanding that it os part of their body. So in this stage they become able to distinguish between “me” and “outside of me”/external environment
- Object permanence: understanding that something stilll exists even when you cant see it
End of stage sognalled by DEFERRED IMITATION (doing/copying something someone did when model is not present)
- Preoperational Stage
(Piagets stages of cognitive development)
- Semiotic functions: Child devlops ability to find a way to represent the things they want to talk about using objects symbols or words
This ability allows the child to atart thinking about the past, present and future and use language
- Children in this stage are egocentric: inability to seprate their persepctive from that of others– not much exists outside of “your” world. So eg if parent go through searation or illness, child might attribute it to themselves
- Unable to use logic to problem solve
- Concrete Operational Stage
(Piagets stages of cognitive development)
About 7-12 years
Children enter this stage when they are able to solve conservation tasks correctly
Begin to think logically but not not hypothetically: physicsal components of problem must be present
- Formal Operational Stage
(Piagets stages of cognitive development)
12+
Thinking both logical and abstract
Can reason hypothetically
Think about the natture and their role in society/ philosophical thinking
Covers huge range of development
Factors influencing the Stages of Development
(Piagets stages of cognitive development)
Speed of propgression determined by environment
Stages occur in an invariable sequence
When child begins a new stage, schemes/thoughts are somewhat disorganized and unstable, whereas when ending a stage the are well formed and organized (like leaving highschool and entering uni)
Schemes
Basic mental structures
Coordinated and systematic pattern of action/way of reasoning
At all stages of cognitive development, children and adults apply schemes as a means of interacting with their environment
Key concepts
(Piagets stages of cognitive development)
Assimilation:
interpreting an experience through your current ways of thinking/schemes
Example- you used to have a dog so now you “know” how to act around such a concept/animal
or a child assimilating rattle into “graspable things” scheme
Accomodation:
modification of behaviour when you realize your schemes are not longer fitting
Example- you meet another dog but its not like the big friendly one you have at home, its small and aggressive so ur not too sure how to go about the situation –> existing scheme doesnt fit this new experience
or child must also accomodate novel factors into grasp action when in contact with eg newer, heavier rattle i.e weight
Equilibration:
Through innate self regulatory process of assimilation and accomodation you create a more organised, powerful and complex scheme for adapting to the environment
Nurture vs Nature? (Piaget)
Interaction between nurture and nature: innate desire to be part of environmtn and learn from it but there needs to be smth to interact with
Cognitive Conflict & Equilibration
(Piaget)
Self regulatory process of trying to achieve a balance in physically responding to & mentally understanding objects, events and relationships between them
Active or Passive? (Piaget)
Knowledge is constructed, created and formed by continuous REVISIONS and REORGANISATIONS of intellectual STRUCTURES in conjunction with experience
Children are active participants in what they learn
(Constructivist view–> child are little scientists and participate in
Continuous or discontinuous (Piaget)
In earlier writing, emphasized distinctive discontinuous stages but later described it as more constantly occurring, like a spiral
Critical or sensitive periods? (Piaget)
Piagets stages represent SENSITIVE periods i.e approximate times for optimal learning
But believed that development was a lifelong process
Strengths and Limitations of Piagets Stages of cognitive Development
+Discovered surprising features of childrens thinking eg object permanence
+ Ecological validity
Piaget focussed on childrens adaption to the world they encounter every day
+ Recognized central role of cognition
-culturally contained/westernized bias
-little emphasis on individual differences
-lack of attention to whole lifespan (a whole lot happens after 12 years of age no??)
