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Anatomy & Physiology II Final Exam > Development And Inheritance > Flashcards

Development And Inheritance Flashcards

1
Q

What is Fertilization?

A

When the sperm and oocyte combine and their nuclei fuse

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2
Q

What is the cell made in fertilization called?

A

A zygote

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3
Q

What does a zygote consist of?

A

Half the genetic information from the mother and half from the father

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4
Q

How many sperm cells are needed for fertilization?

A

Hundreds of millions

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5
Q

What prevents sperm cells from reaching fertilization?

A

Acidity of vagina canal and thick cervical mucus (millions), phagocytic leukocytes (thousands)

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6
Q

How many sperm survive?

A

Thousands

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7
Q

How fast do the surviving sperm travel through the tubes?

A

30 - 120 minutes

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8
Q

How long can sperm survive in the tube?

A

3 - 5 days

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9
Q

When can intercourse lead to fertilization?

A

a few days before ovulation

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10
Q

How long does an oocyte last after ovulation?

A

24 hours

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11
Q

What is capacitation?

A

The membrane over the sperm head thins and allows the sperm to prepare for fertilization

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12
Q

What are the two layers of the oocyte?

A

Corona Radiata and Zona Pellucida

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13
Q

What layer of the oocyte does the sperm penetrate through?

A

Corona Radiata

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14
Q

What must the sperm bind to in the oocyte?

A

A receptor in the Zona Pellucida

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15
Q

What is the Acrosomal Reaction?

A

The enzyme filled cap of the sperm releases enzymes to penetrate the 2 layers of the oocyte

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16
Q

What does the sperm fuse to in the oocyte?

A

The plasma membrane of the oocyte

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17
Q

How many sperm cells does it take for the acrosomal reaction?

A

Hundreds of sperm to release enzymes

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18
Q

What happens to the sperm and oocyte after fertilization?

A

The oocyte plasma membrane depolarizes to prevent further penetration; protiens between layers shock excess sperm to be killed and released; oocyte receptors are destroyed

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19
Q

What forms after fertilization?

A

An impenetrable protein barrier forms called the fertilization membrane

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20
Q

What happens to the female zygote (oocyte) upon fertilization?

A

Meiosis is completed and the last polar body is ejected

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21
Q

Once the oocyte has complete meiosis it is called a ____ until the ___ intermingle.

A

Ovum, DNA

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22
Q

How are fraternal twins created?

A

1% of the time, 2 oocytes are released and fertilized at the same time

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23
Q

How are identical twins created?

A

When the female zygote (oocyte) splits

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24
Q

What is gestation?

A

The time it takes for full fetal development

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25
Q

How long is the pre-embryonic stage?

A

The first 2 weeks

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26
Q

When does the zygote become an embryo?

A

From weeks 3 - 8

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27
Q

When does an embryo become a fetus?

A

From weeks 9 - birth

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28
Q

What happens during the embryo stage?

A

The organs begin to form

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29
Q

What is conceptus?

A

The zygote and associated membranes moving to the uterus

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30
Q

How long does conceptus take?

A

About 3 days

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31
Q

What happens in conceptus?

A

The zygote divides from 2 cells to 16 cells

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32
Q

What do the zygote cells eventually form into in the uterus?

A

An inner mass (embryo) and outer shell (placenta)

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33
Q

What are the inner cells for a few more days after reaching the uterus?

A

Totipotent cell

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34
Q

What is totipotent cell?

A

An ultimate stem cell capable of becoming anything (muscle, nerves, connective or epithelial tissue, organs, etc.)

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35
Q

What happens to the zona pullucida during embryonic development?

A

It is broken down for implantation in the uterus

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36
Q

When and where should implantation be done?

A

By the end of the first week and within the uterine wall.

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37
Q

__% - __% of blastocytes fail implantation and shed with ______

A

50% - 70%, menses

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38
Q

How does the grouping of cells implant into the uterine wall?

A

By digesting endometrial (stratum functionalis) cells of uterus

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39
Q

What happens after the grouping of cells implants into the uterine wall?

A

The uterus will rebuild the uterine mucosa wall and the blastocyte will be enclosed within the wall.

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40
Q

Why is Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) released?

A

It is released during implantation to keep the corpus luteum healthy, growing and secreting progesterone so menses does not begin.

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41
Q

When is implantation done?

A

By the middle of the second week

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42
Q

When can you see a positive pregnancy test and why?

A

By the middle of the second week because hCG is in the blood stream for a positive pregnancy test/

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43
Q

What is an ectopic pregnancy?

A

Implantation outside of the uterus

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44
Q

What is placenta previa?

A

When implantation happens in the inferior section of the uterus and the placenta covers the opening of the cervix

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45
Q

Where should implantation happen in the uterus?

A

In the posterior superior section of the uterus

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46
Q

What happens if the placenta is blocking the cervical canal?

A

The baby will not be able to come out during birth

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47
Q

What is the amnion?

A

A sac that surrounds the embryo and is filled with fluid of protection

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48
Q

What is the yolk sac?

A

A sac that provides nourishment until the placenta is functional; it is a source for blood cells and germ cells

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49
Q

What is the embryo/fetus floating in?

A

Amniotic Fluid

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50
Q

What is the allantois?

A

A primitive excretory duct that will become a part of the urinary bladder

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51
Q

What forms the outer layer of the umbilical cord?

A

The yolk sac and the allantois

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52
Q

What is the chorion?

A

The membrane that surrounds the amnion, yolk sac, and allantois

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53
Q

What is the umbilical cord?

A

The connections between the placenta and the fetus

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54
Q

When does embryogenisis happen?

A

During week 3

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55
Q

What happens in embryogenisis?

A

The 2 layer disc becomes 3 layers and cells go from totipotency to multipotency

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56
Q

What is the primitive streak?

A

indentation for new cells to travel along to form endoderm or mesoderm

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57
Q

How does the ectoderm form?

A

From the cells that do not migrate

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58
Q

The endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm are the _______, ______, or _______ layer of the different organ systems.

A

inner, middle, outer

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59
Q

When does the placenta start to develop?

A

During weeks 4 - 12 (starts in the embryonic phase and stops at the fetus phase)

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60
Q

What does the placenta do?

A

Feeds the embryo

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61
Q

What is the placenta composed of?

A

Maternal and embryonic tissue

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62
Q

True of False: The placenta connects to the conceptus through the umbilical cord?

A

True.

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63
Q

When is the placenta completed?

A

At week 14 - 16

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64
Q

True or False: Some substances cross the placenta due to peristalsis.

A

False.
Some substances cross the placenta due to SIMPLE DIFFUSION.

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65
Q

Which substances use simple diffusion to cross the placenta and which substances to active transport?

A

Simple Diffusion: Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Active Transport: Amino acids and Iron (they are in high demand)

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66
Q

Where does unoxygenated blood and waste from the fetus travel?

A

Through the umbilical arteries

67
Q

Where does oxygen and nutrients for the fetus travel?

A

Through the single umbilical vein

68
Q

True or False: Maternal and Fetal blood commingle.

A

False: Maternal and Fetal blood DO NOT commingle.

69
Q

What is the placenta permeable to?

A

Lipid soluble fetotoxic substances

70
Q

What are lipid soluble fetotoxic substances?

A

Alcohol, nicotine, barbiturates, antibiotics, some pathogens and more

71
Q

What causes the embryo to go from a flat sheet of cells to a cylindrical?

A

Embryonic Folding

72
Q

What is organogenesis and when does it start?

A

When the embryo develops organs, which starts by week 8

73
Q

What are the embryo characteristics by the end of the embryonic period?

A

The embryo is about 3 cm long and weights 0.25 oz

74
Q

How long is fetal development?

A

A 30 week period

75
Q

What does fetal development do?

A

Prepare the fetus for survival outside of the womb

76
Q

When does sexual differentiation begin?

A

During weeks 9 -12

77
Q

Where is blood in the heart of the fetus shifted?

A

Through the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus

78
Q

When does bone marrow begin erythrocyte production?

A

During weeks 9 -12

79
Q

How long is the fetus at the end of week 12?

A

9 cm long

80
Q

What happens within weeks 13 - 16

A

Development of sensory organs, hair, and fetal feces

81
Q

What happens within weeks 16 - 20?

A

Limb movements are powerful and sebaceous glands coat the skin with vernix caseosa

82
Q

What happens within weeks 20 -30?

A

Rapid weight gain, myelination (important for coordination), eyes begin to open, lungs produce surfactant, and testes descend into scrotum, fetus is 28 cm long

83
Q

What happens between week 31 and birth?

A

Birth fat is accumulated and nails grow

84
Q

What are the characteristics of the average newborn?

A

51 cm (20 in) and 5.5 - 8.8 lbs

85
Q

How long is a full term pregnancy?

A

270 days or 38.5 weeks (conception to birth)

86
Q

When is the due date usually set?

A

284 days from the last menstrual period

87
Q

When does the uterus dramatically grow?

A

During the 2nd and 3rd trimesters

88
Q

The ________ takes over the endocrine function from the ______ _______ during weeks __ - __

A

Placenta, corpus luteum, 12 - 17

89
Q

True or False: Estrogen levels increase 30 times during childbirth.

A

True

90
Q

What does estrogen do?

A

Stop ovulation, help fetal development, stimulate maternal tissue growth (uterus and mammary ducts)

91
Q

What does relaxin do?

A

Loosen pelvis and dilate cervix

92
Q

What does progesterone do?

A

Inhibits contractions

93
Q

What does hCG do?

A

Stimulates male gonads to produce testosterone

94
Q

What does thyrotropin do?

A

Increase production of thyroid hormone —> raise the metabolic rate —> increase appetite and cause hot flashes

95
Q

What does prolactin do?

A

Stimulate growth of mammary glands

96
Q

What does ACTH stimulate?

A

Cortisol secretion for fetal protein synthesis

97
Q

How many calories should be consumed during the first trimester?

A

Normal Caloric intake

98
Q

How much weight should be gained during the first trimester?

A

1 pound per month

99
Q

How many calories should be consumed during the second and third trimester?

A

An additional 300 calories per day

100
Q

How much weight should be gained during the second and third trimesters?

A

1 pound per week

101
Q

Where is the additional weight going to during pregnancy?

A

Fetus (7-8), Amniotic fluid (2-3), blood (4), uterus (2-5), placenta (2-4), breast tissue (2-3), fat (3-9)

102
Q

How much additional weight is added during pregnancy?

A

22 - 36 pounds

103
Q

Why does nausea and vomiting happen during pregnancy?

A

Increased sensitivity to odors and decreased intestinal peristalsis

104
Q

When does morning sickness usually stop?

A

Around week 12

105
Q

What causes an increase of gastric reflux and when does it usually happen?

A

Upward pressure of the uterus towards the end of pregnancy

106
Q

Why does constipation happen?

A

Decreased peristalsis (makes it harder to get everything out as waste)

107
Q

Why does urination increase?

A

The uterus is is expanding up and down (onto the bladder) leaving less room for the bladder to expand; producing waste for yourself and fetus

108
Q

Why does pulse and blood pressure increase?

A

Increased blood volume

109
Q

What can increased uterus pressure of pelvic blood vessels cause?

A

Varicose veins or hemorrhoids

110
Q

Why does respiration increase?

A

Fetal demand and lack of room for diaphragm expansion

111
Q

Why do stretch marks happen?

A

Growth and torn connective tissue

112
Q

What causes contractions?

A

Progesterone drops and estrogen increases

113
Q

What is the blood show?

A

A plug of mucus covering the cervix is expelled with a small amount of blood about 2 days before labor

114
Q

Why is oxytocin produced during labor?

A

To intensify contractions

115
Q

What is the cervical dilation stage?

A

10 cm diameter dilation; takes 6 - 12 hours

116
Q

What are the characteristics of contractions when they start?

A

happen every 3 - 30 minutes and last for 20 - 40 seconds

117
Q

What are the characteristics of contractions when they end?

A

happen every 1.5 - 2 minutes and last for 1 minute

118
Q

What happens at the end of the dilation stage?

A

The amniotic membrane will rupture

119
Q

What happens in the expulsion stage?

A

The fetal head will enter the cervical canal

120
Q

How long does the expulsion stage last?

A

Either minutes or hours

121
Q

Where should the fetal head be facing during the expulsion stage?

A

Down and facing the maternal spine

122
Q

What may tear during birth?

A

The posterior vaginal wall and perineum

123
Q

What will the baby aspirate during it’s first breath?

A

Mucus from the mouth and nose

124
Q

How is the baby separated from the umbilical cord?

A

The cord is double clamped and cut in the middle

125
Q

What is after birth?

A

Delivering the placenta and membranes

126
Q

What is a breech presentation?

A

The buttocks and legs are down and coming out first

127
Q

What is a caesarian section?

A

A surgical birth where the doctor cuts into the abdominal cavity and extracts the baby

128
Q

What is involution?

A

The uterus reducing to pre - pregnancy size

129
Q

How does the infants blood flow increase?

A

By the fetus breathing and expanding the lungs

130
Q

Circulation in the heart adjusts as the _______ _____ and ______ __________ closes

A

foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus

131
Q

What helps the fetus regulate their temperature?

A

The automatic breakdown of brown fat

132
Q

True or False? The infant produces heat fast and loses it slowly.

A

False: The infant produces heat SLOW and loses it QUICKLY.

133
Q

Is the fetal intestine of the infant sterile (free of bacteria)?

A

Yes

134
Q

Where does the infant receive bacterial flora?

A

Breast milk or formula

135
Q

Why is dehydration a big risk in infants?

A

Infant urine is very dilute because their kidneys aren’t very efficient

136
Q

How is breast milk secretion and production increased?

A

The infant sucking at the nipple

137
Q

What is breast milk good for?

A

Passive immunity for fetus, encourages involution, increases metabolic rate to consume the fat stored during pregnancy

138
Q

What hormone establishes and maintains breast milk supply?

A

Prolactin

139
Q

When does prolactin spike?

A

1 hour during each feed to prepare for the next feeding

140
Q

True or False: Prolactin will stay high as long as breast feeding is constant.

A

False: Prolactin will decrease over time, even with constant breastfeeding

141
Q

How much breast milk can be produced per day?

A

About 1.5 L a day

142
Q

How long can breast milk production last?

A

For years if breastfeeding never stops

143
Q

What is secreted from the breasts during the first 72 hours after birth?

A

Colostrum

144
Q

When does the breast start producing only breast milk (no colostrum)?

A

After a week

145
Q

What is the main difference between colostrum and breastmilk?

A

Colostrum has a lot more immunoglobulins and breast milk has more fat

146
Q

When do most mothers switch children over to cow’s milk?

A

Around 6 months

147
Q

How does cows milk compare to breast milk?

A

Cow’s milk has less fat and more proteins, sodium, phosphorus, and calcium

148
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The genetic makeup

149
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

How the genes are outwardly expressed (appearance)

150
Q

What are sex chromosomes?

A

The pair that determines male or female (XY or XX); 23rd chromosome

151
Q

How many chromosomes do we get from each parent?

A

1

152
Q

What is an allele?

A

A copy of 1 gene

153
Q

How many alleles do we get from each parent?

A

1

154
Q

What makes someone homozygous?

A

2 identical alleles for a single gene (two blue eye parents)

155
Q

What makes someone heterozygous?

A

2 different alleles for a single gene (one parent with blue eyes and one parent with brown eyes)

156
Q

Which allele will show in heterozygous?

A

The dominant allele

157
Q

Which allele will not show in heterozygous?

A

The recessive allele

158
Q

What is co-dominance?

A

When two genes are dominant and they both show

159
Q

What is a carrier?

A

Someone with a recessive gene that can be passed on

160
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A change in DNA sequence that may or may not affect the phenotype

161
Q

What is Down’s Syndrome?

A

3 copies of chromosome 21 (only supposed to have 2)

162
Q

What is Turner Syndrome?

A

Only 1 copy of X chromosome

163
Q

Who and what does Turner Syndrome affect?

A

Women; sexual organs do not mature

164
Q

What is Trisomy 16?

A

3 copies of chromosome 16; It is the common cause of miscarriage

Anatomy & Physiology II Final Exam (3 decks)

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