Development Flashcards
Piaget (1932) - development outline
Depends upon the brain’s biological maturity and personal experiences
All children go through 4 developmental stages without skipping/missing
What people know isn’t as important as how they acquire mental abilities
Stage Theories
Must pass through specified stages in order; each stage builds on the previous
Movement/progression through stages are linked to age changes (biological maturation)
Development at each stage is ‘sign posted’ by steps - behaviour transitions
Piaget - Schemas
Frameworks/mental patterns enabling understanding of environment
Based around reflexes (gripping, sucking); become more complex/symbolic with age
Developed through assimilation and accomadation
Piaget - Assimiliation
New information is incorporated into existing framework
Piaget - Accomodation
Existing framework is modified with new information
Evaluation of Piaget
Largest contribution to understanding cognitive development of children
Challenged views - children operate on environment rather than vice versa, children think differently to adults, learning is an active process
Strengths of Piaget
Further research has supported theories and findings
Inspired further studies and theories (Kohlberg)
Findings led to improved results and overall effect of contemporary education system (Hill 1998) - concept of readiness
Limitations of Piaget
May have underestimated development; object permanence understood at 3-4 months, preoperational children show less ego centrism and animism than thought
Stage theory didn’t account for individual differences
Cultural differences
Tasks relied on reflections and self-reports; underestimation of individual competence (Donaldson, 1979)
Bias observation - own children, western cultures
Small sample
Adults can fail operational tasks
Bernstein and Nash (2002)
Piaget - Infants know more sooner; key cognitive accomplishments are achieved earlier than proposed, larger age range variation (concrete operational tasks shown in younger age brackets)
Kail and Bisanz (1992)
Piaget - preoperational children in trial may notbe able to do tasks - lost concentration, attention, forgot parts of problems
McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974)
Piaget - Children 4-5 years can accurately complete conservation tasks as long as there is not distracting info
Kolhberg (1958) - Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional Stage (0-9 years) Conventional Stage (10-15 years) Post-Conventional Stage (16+)
Strengths of Kohlberg
Large bodies of research support the theory (Shaffer, 1999, Colby et al, 1983)
Stages 1-4 are cross cultural
Useful information about moral reasoning in western cultures
Limitations of Kohlberg
Most people fail to reach stage 6
Some people skip/reverse stages
Moral dilemmas may be too difficult for children - relate/express answers
Coding system fails to account for cultural reasoning (Shweder, 1991)
Gender bias - only studied males
Gilligan (1982)
Kohlberg - argued against gender bias
Men - morality of justice (stage 4 reasoning)
Women - morality of care (stage 3 reasoning)
The supposed gender differences found haven’t been supported; where they do, don’t always favor men (Durkin, 1995)
Erikson’s Stage Theory of Identity (1959)
8 stages encountering both psychological processes and social interactions; characterized by psychosocial crisis related to transition in social relationships - overcome to develop positive traits
Psychosocial Crisis
Erikson (1959) - a social dilemma/problem individuals face adjusting to society; involves a struggle between two opposing tendencies (internal vs societal) - shapes personality through resolutions
Erikson - Stage 1
(0-1) Trust vs Mistrust
dependant on adults for basic needs
consistent, predictable, reliable care results in trust
unpredictable, inadequate care, and failure to meet basic needs results in mistrust
(supported by Bowlby, Ainsworth)
Erikson- Stage 2
(1-3) Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt
Beginning to assert independence (walking), learning skills
Reinforced through praise for achievement - instill autonomy
Doubt ability if overly controlled
Erikson - Stage 3
(3-5 years) Initiative vs Guilt
Begin to assert themselves, develop initiative, explore, interpersonal skills
Healthy balance between initiative and guilt - interacting with others, asking pointless questions; dismissed by parents — guilt, ‘being a nuisance’
Guilt is necessary to learn self-control
Erikson - Stage 4
(6-12 years) Industry vs Inferiority
Start to learn new skills valued by society; success/failure affect feelings of adequacy
Desire to win approval by demonstrating competence, develop pride
Encouraged and reinforced for initiative, begin to feel confident in ability
If restricted, begin to feel inferior; doubt own potential
Some doubt necessary to develop modesty
Erikson - Stage 5
(13-18) Identity vs Role Confusion
Looking a future in terms of career, relationships etc
Mental and physical maturation
Failure leads to role confusion - identity crisis
Bee (1992) - “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do/be, and one’s appropriate sex role”
Erikson - Stage 6
(18-40) Intimacy vs Isolation
Explore long term commitment
Established stable identity, prepared to share a meaningful love/deep friendship
Success = comfortable relationship; commitment, safety, care
Failure = avoidance of intimacy, fearing commitment - isolation, loneliness, depression
Erikson - Stage 7
(40-65) Generativity vs Stagnation
Generativity - caring about oneself, future generations
Stagnation - overly concerned with own personal needs, comforts, lack of personal growth - become bored and inactive; lose meaning in life, feel bitter
Erikson - Stage 8
(65+) Integrity vs Despair
Reflection; integrity - ability to look back with acceptance and satisfaction
Regrets lead to despair - series of missed opportunities, feel like failure; ageing and death become a source of fear
Bandura Social Learning Theory (1965)
demonstrates the impact of observation on behavior
Bandura - Aggressive behaviour rewarded
showed more aggression
Bandura - Aggressive behaviour punished
Showed less aggression; when rewarded were as aggressive as the first group
Bandura - No consequence for aggressive behaviour
aggressive with doll
Bandura (1965) Findings
Boys were generally more aggressive than girls, but when they were offered a reward, girls were just as aggressive
The observer has to value the behaviour, have the required skill to replicate the behaviour
Bandura (1969) future findings
Learner’s play an active role in the modelling process
Choosing which models they pay attention to, evaluating if behaviour aligns with beliefs/values
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 1 - moral focus
Moral focus - punishment and obedience, egocentric
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 1 - characterics
fail to recognise other viewpoints, punishment shows good/bad behaviours, confuses authority’s perspective with own, actions are based on consequence rather than psychological interest of others
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 1 - reasoning example
Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug because he might get caught and go to jail
Heinz should steal the drug - his inlaws might punish him if he didn’t
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 2 - moral focus
Naive reward related to self
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 2 - characteristics
Follows rules if in interest (pleasure-seeking orientation), moral thinking based on reward and self-interests, shows concern for others (mutual gain), aware of different interests that may cause conflict
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 2 - reasoning
It’s right to steal the drug - wife will then keep him company
Wife never has time for Heinz - shouldn’t steal drug
Kohlberg (1958) Preconventional Stage
(0-9) stage 1 -2; begin to show basic understanding of moral behaviour
Morality is external to themselves, outside society
Think in terms of external authority - morality judged by consequence
Kohlberg (1958) Conventional Stage
(10-15) stage 3-4; learns the nature of authority within family and society
Rules are necessary for maintaining social order; followed to gain approval
Rules are absolute guides that should be rigidly enforces
Moral reasoning is guided and determined by conformity
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 3 - moral focus
mutual interpersonal expectations, conformity and relationships
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 3 - characteristics
determined by dis/approval from friends and family, good behaviour to please others, following rules, moral thinking based on trust, respect and loyalty, conformity, less egocentric, increased empathy
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 3 - reasoning
Heinz should steal the drug - family, friends expectations
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 4 - moral focus
Authority - Law and Order
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 4 - characteristics
shift from right from role expepctations to wider social norms, doing individual duties, accepting views of systme, unquestionally accepting laws, upholding social order, avoid guilt/shame from critism from authority figures
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 4 - reasoning
Heinz shouldn’t steal the drug - shouldn’t break the law as all are equal
Kohlberg (1958) Post-Conventional Stage
Stage 5-6; Decide on personal ethics, acceptance of rules, moral thinking becomes more flexible, personal ethics guide behaviour when riles are conflicting
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 5 - moral focus
Social contract/individual rights
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 5 - characteristics
Laws obeyed for good of community, rules are falliable rather than absolute, emotional bonds and relationships are removed from morality, balancing human rights with laws of society
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 5 - reasoning
Heinz should steal the drug; life is more important than money
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 6 - moral focus
universal ethical principles, moral point of view
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 6 - characteristics
Respect for others, abstract ethical principles emphasising equity and justice, universal principles (justice, respect) applied worldwide, nature of morality rests on respect for others, rules/laws used as guides
Kohlberg (1958) Stage 6 - reasoning
Heinz should steal the drug; life is important, and his wife’s life is an important aspect of Heinz’s life
