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Genes, evolution & development > Development > Flashcards

Development Flashcards

1
Q

Describe Arabidopsis thaliana.

A

Thale cress, small and easy to grow, short lifespan, flowering plant, good for embryology and genetics.

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2
Q

Describe Dictyostelium discoidum.

A

slime mould, chemotaxis (moving due to chemicals) & genetics, multicellularity, transgenesis, social behaviour/alturism.

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3
Q

Describe Hydra.

A

Diploblastic - double bud.
radial symmetry.

sexual and asexual regeneration!
immortal.
freshwater.

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4
Q

Describe Planaria

A

high regenerative capacity.
blob looking thing.
RNAi (interference) knockdown technology,
double stranded RNA inhibits gene.

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5
Q

Describe Caenorhabditis elegans.

A 
nematode worm
tiny 1mm.
specific no of cells ~1000.
RNAi knockdown technology.
males and hermaphrodites, no females. self fertilising for genetics.
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6
Q

Describe Drosophila melanogaster.

A

fruit fly.
short generation time - 1day, genetics.
Transgenesis - introducing a new gene.
imaging

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7
Q

Describe Stronglylocentrotus purpuratus.

A

A deuterostome.
its a echinodermata - spikyskin.
spiky balls.
transparent embryos.

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8
Q

What is a deuterostome?

A

Forms anus then mouth. Humans r deut.

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9
Q

Describe Ciona intestinalis.

A

sea squirts/tunicates. look like corals. embryos look like tadpoles.
transgenesis/genetics/imaging.

they are chordates - same phylum as us.
urochordate - notochord in tail.

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10
Q

Describe Brachiostoma lanceolatum.

A

invertebrate but also chordate. cephalochordate

evolution not much else

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11
Q

What is a cephalochordate?

A

Notochord all the way to the head.

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12
Q

Describe Danio rerio (zebrafish).

A

vertabrate.
useful for genetics, common.
transparent embryos, external development.

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13
Q

Describe Frogs.

A

Produce large numbers of embryos quickly, mammals usually don’t.
Mammals.
Easy to transplant, regenerative.
transparent tadpoles

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14
Q

Describe the Gallus gallus.

A

Chick embryo. transplantation experiments, imaging.

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15
Q

Describe Mus.

A

Mouse embryo.
strong genetics.
mammal.
pluripotent embryonic stem cells.

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16
Q

What is a protostome?

A

mouth forms first, anus second

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17
Q

What is the endoderm?

A

inside tissue layer.

yellow

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18
Q

What is the mesoderm?

A

Middle tissue layer.

red

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19
Q

What is the ectoderm?

A

Outside tissue layer.

blue

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20
Q

What is descriptive embryology?

A

Experiments which aim to define normal development, describing different stages etc.

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21
Q

What is experimental embryology?

A

Changing things to find out how and when cells acquire their fate.

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22
Q

What is gastrulation?

A

morphogenetic process by which the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm layers reach their positions in the embryo.

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23
Q

What is neurulation?

A

morphogenetic process by which the nervous system begins to form, especially the neural tube.

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24
Q

What is a blastomere?

A

A cell in the early embryo.

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25
Q

What is morphogenesis?

A

process by which form in generated (requires coordinated cell movement).

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26
Q

What is a fate map?

A

Tell you what cells will become in their normal environment.

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27
Q

What is a specification map?

A

the assessment of what a cell of tissue will form if removed from their embryonic environment.

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28
Q

What does competance mean?

A

the range of cell fates that can be achieved by a group of cells.

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29
Q

What does induction mean?

A

emitting signales to change the fate of other cells.

30
Q

Describe the stages of xenopus formation.

A

blastulus, gastrulation, neurulation, talibud, tadpole.

31
Q

Descibe mosaic development.

A

First looked at tunicates, they had colorations in embryos.

If a cell is removed, that cells fate is completely lost from the embryo.

32
Q

Describe regulative development.

A

If you remove the cell, the embryo will adapt, and find ways to get it back. Mediated by cell-cell induction.
Cells haven’t decided their fate yet, depend on neighbours.

33
Q

What is a homeotic mutation?

A

A mutation which results in the transformation of one body structure into another.

34
Q

What are hox genes?

A

Family of genes which encode related transciption factors characterized by containing a homeobox, mutations in hox genes lead to homeotic transformations.

35
Q

What are homologous genes?

A

Genes that share a common ancestral gene.

36
Q

What are paralogous genes?

A

Duplicated genes within a single genome.

37
Q

What are orthologous genes?

A

Same gene in different organisms.

38
Q

Describe gene redundancy.

A

A situation when no phenotype is observed when a gene is mutated because an additional gene can replace or is also involved in the functinoal role of the gene.

39
Q

What is determinance?

A

Will still develop according to its fate even if removed

40
Q

What does anterior mean?

A

head

41
Q

What does posterior mean?

A

tail

42
Q

What do ventral and dorsal mean?

A

Dorsal is back, ventral is front.

43
Q

What did Wilhelm Roux find out?

A

Destroyed half the embryo at a 2-cell stage, the other half still regulated fine.

44
Q

What did Hans Spemann discover?

A

Used baby hair to seperate the 2 blastomeres after division. Resulted with 2 normal embryos that adjusted and regulated its development.
Fate map =/ cell state.

That each nucleus was totipotent at the 16-cell stage.
A single nucelus had the ability to form a full organism. “first cloning”

45
Q

Describe what Hidle Mangold discovered.

A

Transplanted a partfrom the dorsal region to another region of a different embryo. Used differently pigmented embryos. Able to induce a second embryo - siamese twin.
The tissue could induce the cells around it.

46
Q

What is tandem gene duplication?

A

unequal cross over caused by chromosome mis-pairing, possibly caused by repeat DNA sequences.

47
Q

Why is subfunctionalisation neccessary?

A

If all the replicated genes had the same function they would have no use and would be destroyed.

48
Q

What is allotetraploidy?

A

whole gene duplication. hybridization between two seperate species.

49
Q

What is autotetraploidy?

A

whole genome duplication.

hybridization through improper meiosis.

50
Q

What are the methods of subfunctionalization?

A

Changing the protein sequence.

change time/place of expression.

51
Q

What is segmental duplication?

A

A large tandem duplication, not single gene but a large chunk.

52
Q

Where are the 3’ end and 5’ end expressed in patterning?

A

3’ anterior.

5’ posterior

53
Q

What are toolkit genes?

A

act directly or indirectly to control the expression of other genes. ie hox genes control the anterior-posterior patterning.

54
Q

What does potency mean?

A

the range of cell fates availible to a cell or tissue.

55
Q

What does totipotent mean?

A

the abillity to develop into all cells.

56
Q

What does pluripotent mean?

A

The ability to develop into most but not all embryonic cells.

57
Q

What does bipotent mean?

A

the ability to develop into two cell types.

58
Q

What does unipotent mean?

A

the ability to develop into one cell type.

59
Q

Describe what Briggs & Kings discovered.

A

First to successfully transplant nuclei from blastula stage to eggs - tadpoles/frogs.
Didn’t work past blastula stage.

60
Q

Describe the Waddington landscape.

A

Potency decreases with time. As totipotent cells differentiate they become more restricted.

However not one way road, differentiated cells can be reprogrammed back to an embryonic pluripotent state - nucleur reprogramming.

61
Q

Describe John Gurdon’s experiments.

A

serial nucleur transplantation, repeated lots. Got normal clones.
First to clone an animal through nucleur transplantation using a terminally differentiated nucleus.

62
Q

What are embryonic stem cells?

A

Remain at the top of the landscape under the right conditions.

63
Q

Describe Yamanaka’s experiments.

A

First to reprogram cells/nuclei (induce pluripotency) without nucleur transplantation.

Can remove disease using own cells, no rejection.

64
Q

What is the grey crescent fated to do?

A

become the notocord.

65
Q

what are the effects of radiation on humans?

A

aplastic anemia - descrease in blood count.
nausea and vomiting.
loss of hair.

66
Q

how can you treat radiation?

A

bone marrow transplants

67
Q

What are hematopoietic steam cells?

A

In bone marrow

68
Q

Why does nausea occur?

A

The intestinal steam cells are lost, cant renew the intestine cells.

69
Q

Why does a loss of hair occur?

A

stem cells in hair are lost.

70
Q

What are the factors for induced pluripotency?

A

Klf4 Sox2 Oct4 MyC

Genes, evolution & development (5 decks)

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