Depth - The loss of the American colonies 1770-83

Question 1

Tensions between Britain and American Colonists - Townshend Duties -

What were they?

Answer 1

Colonists had argued against the Stamp Act 1765 by saying that the British had no right to tax internally but had conceded parliament’s right to regulate trade - removed in 1766

1767-1770 - duties on the imports of glass, wine, china, lead, paint, paper and tea - light.

Assemblies went further than they had ever done in presenting formal protests against the new duties e.g. the Massachusetts Assembly published a denunciation of the Townshend Duties for violating the principle of ‘no taxation without representation’ and 7 other colonial assemblies quickly endorsed this letter

Boycotts were organised, which were well organised and violent protests in Boston. British military presence, both naval and military, increased in Boston from 1768 to ensure the collection of duties and the protection of the American Board of Customs Commissioners

Boston resistance was led by the Sons of Liberty, a well organised paramilitary organisation founded in 1765 in opposition to the British attempts at taxation

Question 2

Tensions between Britain and American Colonists - tax deadlock

Answer 2

1770
Britain wanted the colonies money for the cost of defence – 1760s attempt to get money from duties under the Navigation Acts

To the colonies Britain was trying to extend their power by collecting duties and was tyrannical as the only proper way to raise money was by colonial assemblies and spent locally not for the empire
NO TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION

Question 3

Tensions between Britain and American Colonists - Other Reasons

Answer 3

Most white men had a sense of independence which was new to them – they had the same status as landowners and voters in Europe – loyalties lie to their community and churches not so much Britain or America

Colonist were highly involved in their own self –government and practiced a form of democracy – they were better off in American than in Britain for voting rights

The legislative assemblies were at the heart of opposition to British taxes and provided a forum for debate and coherent response to new laws – they had the means to say no to Britain

Opposition came from each individual colony so when they joined together it went a lot smoother as they had been making separate and unsuccessful protests for 10 years

Question 4

Boston Massacre

Answer 4

1770
Street fight between a ‘patriot’ mob, and a squad of British soldiers. Several colonists were killed, and 9 British soldiers shot

Isolated event as there was, no communication, so failed to spark the revolution

Question 5

Why was the Boston Massacre not the start of the American War of Independence? - British repeal of the hated Townshend Duties

Answer 5

The pause on hostility was due to the repeal of Townshend duties in 1770 except on tea. The tax still represented continued tyranny and limited legal duties were ever paid resulting in tea smuggling

Despite the British being prepared to repeal them, they did not changed their stance on America paying taxes, the existence of loyalists in the colonies and a lack of unity between colonists

But, the Colonists remained alert for new infringements on liberties – without a new approach to taxation of America confrontation was inevitable

Years of Calm 1770-73 represent a dampening down of tensions but no resolution to them

Question 6

Why was the Boston Massacre not the start of the American War of Independence? - existence of a significant number of loyalists in the colonies

Answer 6

Loyalists represented around 20% of the population
Patriot support a its highest was 40-45%
The rest of the population were neutrals

Loyalists tended to be on the margins of colonial society and made up of smaller groups with varying interest and a wide geographical spread.

On the whole the wealthier members of colonial society did not support the British

Loyalists included minority groups like the South back-country farmers, Anglicans in New England, the Germans and Dutch of New York and some of the more recent Scots immigrants to the colonies

When the conflict began, far more slaves fought for the British in the exchange for their freedom but the British were unwilling to destablise society by promising wholesale freedom for slaves and there was no large-scale recruitment for Black Americans, who made 1/6 of the population

Question 7

Why was the Boston Massacre not the start of the American War of Independence? - lack of unity between the colonists.

Answer 7

If the British wished to win the neutrals over during the years of clam they needed to be more active than they were in promoting the benefits of British rule

Divisions in American society hampered the patriots - As well as the ethnic and religious subdivisions in American society, there was a gulf between the rich and the poor, and in Virginia and California, between those in the more extensivley settled Tidewater areas and those fighting to establish claims in the back coutnry

The early 1770s was a period of relative civil war in the Carolinas when the Regualtor movement made up of small armers rose up against the corrupt Tidewater officals

The patriots used the years of calm more effectivley to promote unity than the British - in 1771 Sam Adams proposed establishing the Committee of Correspondence whose role was to communicate in writing colonial grievances to all the towns in Massachusetts and by mid-1773, 50 other tows in Massachusetts had their own committee established.

By 1774 every colony expect North Carolina and Pensylvannia had its own committee. This new system the British could not control, meaning the patriots had a powerful tool ready to use to convert neutrals into patriots if neccessary

Question 8

What was The Tea Act

Answer 8

1773
The Townshend duties were repealed in 1770 but the duty on tea remained and was enforced through this act
Under the act the British EIC was granted a monopoly on the American tea trade in an attempt to shore up the EIC as Britain had been squeezing money out of it to pay off some national debt
The EIC was exempt on tariffs and allowed to ship tea directly to the colonies as it was hoped to increase the profits for the EIC, saving them from bankruptcy
The Colonists were then taxed through the Tea Act which upset Americans as it would prevent them from making profit on this trade likely making them feel as though the British had stunted their freedom

Question 9

Impact of the Tea Act

Answer 9

Increase in smuggling- American colonists brought 410,000 kg of foreign tea- mostly from the Dutch

Revolutionary feeling rose - The Sons of Liberty started to encourage people to disregard British laws and buy illegal tea

Merchants who had been acting as middlemen in legally importing tea stood to lose their business to the EIC agents. Merchants dealing with the illegal Dutch tea trade would be undercut by the Company’s lowered prices. Directly impacted shopkeepers who would only be allowed to purchase tea from merchants selected by the EIC and their monopoly. Only ships owned by the EIC could carry tea- American ships would be redundant

Favouritism- Consignees who were to receive the tea and arrange for its local resale were generally favourites of the local governor. The Governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson, was a part-owner of the business hired by the East India Company to receive tea shipped to Boston.

Question 10

Boston Tea Party

Answer 10

1773 the Dartmouth sailed into Boston with EIC tea with other ships following
Patriots were determined that Boston should set an example to other colonies
After discussions with the governor and patriots, 60 Sons of Liberty boarded the 3 ships and threw about £10k worth of tea into the sea

British response was outrage- faced a fundamental challenge and the colonies should be taught a lesson. Tried to isolate Boston and Massachusetts (lockdown the city and the state under effectively military control). Intended to punish the colony, but underestimated the extent of intercolonial links and the level to which patriot support already existed in the other colonies

Question 11

Coercive Acts

Answer 11

1774-1775
The Boston Port Act - closed the port of Boston until the EIC was paid for the lost tea which created a hardship for people whose livelihood depended on trade

Massachusetts Government Act - took away many self-governing rights with the aim of punishing Boston and forcing the end of resistance. Almost all positions in the colonial gov were to be appointed by the governor or King with freedom of assembly being limited

Administration of Justice Acts - British officials accused of committing crimes in colonies may be taken to England for trial which meant witnesses would be forced to travel with the thought the officials would escape justice

The Quartering Act - Allowed the British to quarter British soldiers in colonial buildings at the expense of the colonists, including colonists’ homes, if there was insufficient space elsewhere

The Quebec Act - extended the boundaries of the province of Quebec. Quebec didn’t have representative assemblies and there was a limits to trial by jury. Many saw this as an attempt to further erode the liberties of Americans and establish tyrannical rule

Question 12

Continental Congress (result of Coercive Act)

Answer 12

The Coercive Acts did not succeed in isolating Boston
Colonial assembly after assembly had to be dissolved by their governors but continued to meet in defiance of British law.

Met for the 1st time in 1774 - 1st de facto gov:
Supported the views of the radicals despite moderates like Joseph Galloway arguing that Britain had the right to regulate trade within its empire. Called upon Massachusetts to arm for defence. Proclaimed the right of each colony to determine its own need for troops. The day-to-day running largely passed into the hands of the committees by early 1775. Not the case in Boston where General Gage maintained control with the troops he had to hand, while writing distractedly to London for more and more men

Britain declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion in 1775.

Some members of the English establishment saw the danger and the Earl of Chatham proposed the removal of all duties from the Americas, recognising the power of the Continental Congress
Rejected by the House of Lords and Britain began to prepare for war

Question 13

Issues with starting military escalations

Answer 13

The British under General Gage had only 4,000 troops available

Became apparent after the 1st military action Britain might control Boston, but would be unable to hold down Massachusetts, let alone the other 12 colonies.

General Gage, the commander in chief at the outbreak of the conflict, did not act decisively in the early stages of the rebellion, and his replacement, Howe, was slow to act in 1776

Question 14

Military Action Escalations - Lexington and Concord

Answer 14

1775 General Gage unsuccessfully seized munitions from Salem
Attempted a secret mission in April 1775 to Concord to seize and destroy a military store but were met by 75 volunteers at Lexington and the 1st shots rang out
The British pushed onto Concord and destroyed the stores, but were fired on all the way back to Boston - saved from total disaster by the arrival of relief soldiers.
Total British casualties were 273, and 73 were killed
Shortly after, Boston was besieged and surrounded by 20,000 colonial militia.

Question 15

Military Action Escalations - Bunker Hill

Answer 15

Reinforcements arrived in Boston with Generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne in May 1775 with a few thousand more troops- sparked the bloodiest engagement of the war
The British attempted a full frontal assault against the rebels in June.
Over 1,000 of the 2,500 British engaged in the battle became casualties.
The Americans lost fewer than half that number

The British carried the position, but ⅛ of British officers who were killed in the entire conflict died in the engagement so it cannot be called a victory, especially as the British were shortly besieged frequently by the new colonial army under Washington

George III then issued a Proclamation in August 1775 declaring all colonies in a state of open rebellion.

In 1776 the British were forced to evacuate Boston for Nova Scotia.

Question 16

Military Action Escalations - missed opportunity

Answer 16

With sufficient soldiers (25,000 instead of the 4,000 initially) and decisive action, they may have taken hold of the situation.
Without a creative political solution for the 13 colonies and a debt financing plan that didn’t involve taxing the American colonies or squeezing the EIC until it collapsed, it is hard to see what kind of long- term solution might have been achieved.

Question 17

Declaration of Independence

Answer 17

1776
First two things Congress did once they decided the finance and organisation were needed in 1775 so they issued paper money to meet the costs of war and made Washington the commander of the Continental Army

The formal declaration and establishment of a new government took longer than expected - communication with local authorities took place at every step of the way and in a time of print and horse messages it took a while

Congress worked hard to reach consensus before moving forward and this meaning demonstrating to moderates that every effort was made to reach accommodation with the British. There were two acts in 1775 called the Necessity of Taking Up Arms declaration and the Olive Branch Petition which both gave opportunity for peace

Common Sense by Thomas Paine was highly influential and helped cement the beliefs of many – argued reconciliation was no longer possible and that the establishment of a new and fair government was the only way to deal with the problem

Question 18

Articles of Confederation

Answer 18

1777
Committee of thirteen delegates one from each state to draw up the Constitution – allowed the states to work together without sacrificing too much power to a central government that Americans believed was the root problem in Britain

All powers not specifically given to Congress, are the states. No right to regulate trade or enforce taxes
All states had to agree to any Constitutional amendment
Congress could declare war, issue money, draw up treaties and alliances with foreign powers, deal with Native American affairs, ask for money and men for fighting, set weight and measure standards for trade and regulate post offices
Issues like alliances and treaties needed at least 9 states agreement, not just a majority

Question 19

British Military Strength

Answer 19

Increased its spending and military presence in the colonies in an attempt to defeat the Patriots

On paper Britain had 48,647 soldiers in 1775 and were able to hire mercenaries from German principalities when necessary.

The Royal Navy had almost 340 ships - could reinforce British troops, blockade and attack American ports. Used Newfoundland, Canada and the West Indies to launch their attacks from.

A well established and diverse economy with the most sophisticated methods of public finance. Could absorb increasing levels of debt to continue the fight. Had a population of around 8 million and growing. Put large armies on the field, gather harvests and retain manpower for the developing industrial base.

Question 20

British Military Weakness

Answer 20

The troops were not experienced and only about 8,000 were in America in 1775. During the war, Britain still had to meet its military obligations elsewhere in the Empire and at home

The 1st lord of the Admiralty Lord Sandwich had 1st to re-equip and build up the navy, as it had suffered from limited investment in the 1760s

Supplying and maintaining troops was challenging - Loyalist support was in pockets, and Britain’s hold on the colonies was maintained by holding the seaboard and stationing at the ports. Armies were dispatched onto land to attack the Continental Army and get victory. Supply lines were stretched further and relied on generals being able to pierce the colonials without being separated and defeated. Critical defeats at Saratoga and Yorktown were results of divided forces, elongated supply lines and delayed relief efforts.

The general’s abilities were mixed - suffered from lack of direction from London in terms of strategy. They weren’t to fight a simple seaboard and defensive campaign, starving the colonists into submission, and lacked a obvious colonial centre to defeat. Instead, they should chase and destroy the Continental Army, which meant risking their supply lines. When the French entered, the focus of London shifted as the conflict was now global and America was reduced to a sideshow in the age- old Anglo-French struggle.

Question 21

US Military Strength

Answer 21

The formation of a nation on democratic principles was an ideological dream and developing reality, drawing neutrals to become patriots, leaving the loyalists isolated - most Americans were convinced by the ‘Glorious cause. There was a high level of participation in the process of declaring independence which helped cement support for the new nation. The neutrals were not wooed by promises from the British and there was no decisive victory to draw them to the British side. The use of German soldiers by the British had a detrimental impact on winning support.

The terrain and extremes of the climate were familiar to the colonists helping them when the British ventured inland or away from the navigable rivers. Armies perform better on home ground which was no exception here. The Continental Army were not professional but when soldiers are committed ideologically and are fighting to defend their homes, they have the edge.

Washington when it appeared that all was lost he regrouped and retrained his forces - was responsible for the formation of the Continental Army as he realised that the British wouldn’t be defeated by guerrilla fighting from militias but needed to be challenged conventionally. During the war, he was responsible for the army’s survival and increasing professionalism. Although he was disdainful of the militia, he was aided by the militia’s ability to control parts of the country not actually occupied by the British. Benefited from Congress’ continuing support of his position, even in the dark days.

Question 22

US Military Weakness - more depth

Answer 22

Limited economic development so were reliant on issuing paper money for currency as Congress had no ability to levy taxes. This caused inflation and a general unwillingness to accept the paper notes.

Without a large manufacturing base, the Americans were very short of weapons throughout. However, the British could never completely blockade them into submission, as there was too much coastline to patrol and complete starvation would have impacted on their loyalist support base. Additionally, the intervention of the French lessened British effectiveness at sea still further as the navy now had more responsibilities globally

Question 23

Turning points in the AWI - Battle of Saratoga

Answer 23

1777
The plan - Burgoyne would lead a combined force of British soldiers, Hessian mercenaries (Germans), native Americans, Canadians and loyalists that could be marshalled on the way, to meet the main British troops stationed around New York.

Why it failed - was restricted by an enormous baggage train including 30 vehicles for his wardrobe, American neutrals and loyalists didn’t flock to join an army with native Americans, not coordinated with Clinton or Howe who were pursuing other objectives

The mistake- he failed to sustain the strategic objective of his march south and cut off New England (the hub of the American rebels). Also, he strayed into the forested areas of Vermont, which suited the rebel forces with their knowledge of the area. Rather than retreat he hoped Clinton’s army would reach them to prevent bearing the full brunt of Gate’s attack. Found himself surrounded by double the number of American troops forcing surrender.

The ending- the peace negotiated with Gates was for Burgoyne’s 5,800 troops to lay down their arms and embark on British ships as long as they did not fight again. However, Congress found reasons to reject the terms and the soldiers remained prisoners until the end of the war in 1783. Encouraged the French to join in

Question 24

French and Spanish Involvement

Answer 24

1778-9
Context- The French were motivated by their long-term rivalry and possibility of regaining territory lost in the 7 Years’ War. Treaties were signed in 1778 with the French declaring war on the British. Spain entered as an ally of France in June 1779. Proved decisive in colonial victory, as the conflict was now open on many fronts. Defeat of the French became more important than holding onto the colonies to the British.

Significance - Until 1778, 65% of the British army was in North America but fell to 20% 1780 as troops were required for the defence of Britain against a possible invasion.
Similarly, in 1778, 41% of the British navy was in American waters; by 1780, this had dropped to 13%.
The intervention of the French at Chesapeake Bay was vital in the defeat at Yorktown.
By 1781, Spanish forces had cleared British troops from the Mississippi Valley.
Not - fewer than 10,000 French troops in America who were largely inactive until 1781 but they did form part of the attack on Yorktown.

Consequence- led to the redrawing of British priorities. Britain was mobilised against invasion, it held its possessions in the West Indies (deemed vital to the economic life of Britain) and increased its presence in India. After Yorktown, the loss of the Americas came to be seen as acceptable to the British

Question 25

Battle of Yorktown

Answer 25

1781
Context- after Saratoga, the British decided to move their focus south where they thought there were more loyalists, hoping victory there would allow them to move north taking the colonies one by one. In 1780 Clinton’s assault on Charleston was successful so the British could move into the interior with relative success. British control in 1781 rested on their ability to control Chesapeake Bay and keep Yorktown linked to New York by sea.

The battle- Washington led an army of 16,000 American and French troops into the Yorktown peninsula and laid siege to the British for 3 weeks, while the French fleet held control of the Bay- Cornwallis surrendered on 19 October 1781.

The mistakes and problems- reinforcements arrived 5 days too late.
The population in the South was not the loyalist stronghold they hoped
When Cornwallis moved into the interior victories did not mean territory was held and loyal.
After Charleston General Clinton returned to New York leaving Cornwallis to fight in the south with 4,000 men.
The British were obliged to split forces to ensure the seaboard was held and the ports garrisoned- inadequate communication
The southern campaign, like the North relied on holding the ports.
Clinton assured Cornwallis that the French would not be able to hold superiority of the seas for a length of time but proved strong enough to repulse the 1st British fleet and Clinton’s relief force failed to arrive in time to prevent surrender

Question 26

Treaty of Paris

Answer 26

1783
Started in April under the new ministry led by Shelburne whose main concern was splitting America from their French allies - prepared to be generous
Evacuations of British strong holds were order, and the Peace of Paris was signed by Britain, the US, France, Spain, and Holland

Clauses
Recognition of American independence and boundaries

The division of imperial possessions between Britain, France, and Spain. Spain got Florida and Minorca, Britain regained the Bahamas, France regained St Lucia, Goree, and Puducherry and retained Tobago, Britian returned Trincomalee to Holland but regained Negapatam in India

America got more favourable terms than expected because of a strong negotiating team and British concern to cement reasonable relations with America to have a possible ally against the French in the future

Question 27

Impact of British Defeat Short term

Answer 27

Resignation of Lord North in 1782 and the formation of a coalition government – replaced by a government under William Pitt – decisive victory in 1784 and remained until 1801 – mastermind of the new phase of the Anglo-French conflict in the 1790s

Cost of war was staggering – by 1783 the national debt was £232 million – trade was disrupted in Europe and colonies – pressure on Parliament to end war. However, the intervention of the French and Spanish in the was a crucial factor in the redrawing of British priorities and the decision to seek peace with the colonists

Question 28

Impact of British defeat Long term

Answer 28

1783
Defeat led to a prolonged recession – population continued to boom, and consumer goods combined with good circumstances of Britain being an island in possession of mass amounts of coal mean that entrepreneurs were able to benefit from stable banking system and build the mills and factors on which the Industrial Revolution is based

1785 – Britain’s trade with old colonies had reached pre-war levels and the value of Britain exports to Europe doubled between 1783-92