Demography - 2.5 Flashcards
Define Demography
Study of population and it’s characteristics.
What 4 Factors is Population Growth affected by?
> Births & Immigration + pop
> Deaths & Emigration - pop
Define Natural Change
NO of Births - NO of Deaths
Define Net Migration
NO of ppl immigrating into a country - NO emigrating from it.
Explain the Trend in UK Pop
> Risen est 1900.
> Growth due to natural change > net migration.
What are the 2 Measures of Birth
> Birth Rate (BR)
> Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Define Birth Rate
NO of live births per 1K of population per year.
What is the Trend in Birth Rate?
- Declining est 1900
- Despite Baby Booms after 2 WWW’s & 60’s
Define Total Fertility Rate
- Avg NO of kids a woman has in her fertile years (15-44).
Outline the Trend in Fertility Rate
- Declining
- TFR affects family size
What do the Changes in Birth and Fertility Rate Reflect?
> More women remaining childless
> Women have kids later
Define Infant Mortality Rates
NO of infants who die before 1st birthday per 1K babies born per yr.
Birth Key Sociologists
> Harper (IMR) - Improved Living Standards (ILS)
> Giddens (Contraception)
Reasons for Decline in Birth Rate
> Improved Living Standards (ILS)
Contraception (Giddens)
Changes in Position of Kids
Explain how ILS leads to a fall in Birth Rate
- Wealthier the country, lower the BR
- Eco Growth & ILS mean couples have fewer kids.
- As ILS means better housing, diet, education & medical care.
- Harper says reduced IMR means couples have less ‘replacement babies’ to replace those who die in infancy.
A03 Births Key Sociologist
> Functionalist (ILS) - Structural Differentiation
Explain the Functionalist view of Structural Differentiation being the reason for fall in Births opposed to ILS?
> State institutions take over functions of family.
> Couples don’t need kids to look after them in old age as other institutions do this, so ppl have fewer children.
Explain how Giddens states Contraception has led to a fall in Birth Rate
- Led to ‘plastic sexuality’ = sex becomes detached from reproduction.
- Pill gave women control of reproduction, so they can choose when to have kids.
- IVF mean women can delay having kids later, so have less
Explain the Criticism of Giddens idea that Contraception has led to a fall in BR
> IVF expensive, so not available for all couples.
> No correlation vs Pill and decline in BR, in fact Baby Boom in 60s came after pill’s invention.
Explain the Idea of Changes in the Role of Women being the reason for fall in Births opposed to Contraception?
- More girls in paid employment, so reject domestic role, as career now priority
- Some opting to be childless altogether.
Explain how Changes in the Positions of Kids leads to a fall in Birth Rate
- Kids were eco asset to families as they could work.
- Complusory skl increases dependency, so now eco liability, so have less kids
- Socities child centered so move from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’, ppl have less kids, giving them more attention and resources.
Explain the Idea of Geographical Mobility being the reason for fall in Births opposed to Changes in the Position of Kids?
- Modern labour force needs to be very mobile
- Incentivizes ppl to have small families as it’s easier to pack up and move elsewhere.
What 4 things does Changes in Fertility affect?
> Family
Dependency Ratio
Lonely
Public Services & Policies
Explain how Changes in Fertility affect the Family?
- As families are smaller, women can now go work creating DEF.
- Wealthy couples can still have large families, as they can afford childcare
Explain how Changes in Fertility affect the Dependency Ratio?
- Fall in NO of kids reduces burden on Working Population.
- But fewer ppl entering workforce w/ more ppl retiring.
- Leads to more taxation on working pop to support retired majority.
Explain how Changes in Fertility affect kids in terms of Loneliness?
- Lower BR means childhood’s lonelier for only kids
- More childless adults means less ppl giving kids a voice
- But could mean kids will be more valued
Explain how Changes in Fertility affect Public Services and Policies?
- Fewer skls and child health services needed, less needs to be spent on maternity & paternity leave
- Instead of fewer skls, gov may opt for smaller class sizes.
Explain the Trend in the NO of deaths
Fallen
Define Death Rate (DR)
NO of deaths per 1K of population per yr.
Deaths Key Sociologists
> McKeown (Improved Nutrition) > Tranter (Fall in NO of deaths from Infectious Diseases (ID) > Harper (Obesity) > Harper (Radical Longetivity) > Walker (LE in Poor vs Rich Areas)
Outline Factors related to ILS leading to a fall in Deaths
- Improved Nutrition
- Better Quality Housing
- More income
- Smaller Family Sizes
Explain how Improved Nutrition has lead to a fall in DR, according to McKeown?
- Better diet, reduced NO of deaths from TB
- It increased resistance to ID & survival chances
Explain how Better Quality Housing has lead to a fall in DR
- Better heating to keep warm during winter months, reduces NO of colds etc.
- Less damp so less illness, better housing means less deaths from accidents.
Explain how Small Famliy Sizes has lead to a fall in DR
Better access to contraception, ppl have fewer kids, reduces chances of disease transmission.
Explain how More Income has lead to a fall in DR
- More cash to spend on medicines, food, water, heating etc.
- But also more taxation = more money for public health services.
4 Criticisms of Improved Living Standards
> Doesn’t tells us why girls who get smaller share of food supply, lived longer than men.
> Not all benefit equally, MC have longer LE than WC who suffer from poverty
> Obesity now serious problem – more food don’t mean better nutrition.
> Deaths from measles & infant diarrhoea, rose during improved diet.
Outline Factors related to Medical Improvements leading to a fall in Deaths
> Fall in NO of deaths from Infectious Diseases (ID) (Tranter)
Medical Advances
Obesity (Harper)
Explain Tranter’s findings on Fall in NO of deaths from infectious diseases, in relation to reasons for Decline in DR
- Due to fall in deaths from ID e.g. measles
- Decline in DR occurred among kids
. - Heart disease & cancer overtaken ID
- Vaccines
Explain Medical Advances in relation to reasons for Decline in DR
- Fell due to e.g. vaccinations, antibiotics, blood transfusion, & creation of NHS.
- Vital in reducing NO of deaths from ‘diseases of affluence’ e.g. heart disease & cancer.
Explain how Obesity has lead to a fall in DR, according to Harper?
- Obesity replaced smoking as new lifestyle epidemic.
- But deaths are low due to drug therapies.
- We’re adopting “American” health culture w/ unhealthy lifestyles, but long lives achieved w/ costly medication.
Criticisms of Medical Improvements (Tranter)
> Vaccinations aren’t entirely effective, seen in COVID-19 pandemic, new variants or strains, may appear which vaccinations aren’t immune too.
> MC ppl have access to private health care, more efficient > public health services for WC.
Outline Social Factors and Policies leading to a fall in Deaths
> Public Health Measures
> Other Social Changes
Explain how Public Health Measures has lead to a fall in DR?
- More effective Gov with power to pass laws, led to improved public health
- e.g. clean drinking water, food hygiene standards, pasteurisation of milk.
- Clean Air Act reduced air pollution & Health & Safety Laws at work.
- Compulsory wearing of face masks in public for COVID.
Explain how Other Social Changes has lead to a fall in DR?
- Decline of dangerous manual occupations e.g. mining.
- Greater public knowledge of causes of illness
Criticisms of Social Factors and Policies
> Not all public health measures are effective.
> During lockdowns in COVID 19 pandemic, many suffered mental health problems, leading to increase in suicide.
Define Life Expectancy (LE)
How long on avg person born in given year can expect to live.
Outline the Trend between DR and LE?
DR’s fallen so LE’s increased.
What was LE in 1900, compared to 2013?
1900: 50(M) 57(F)
2013: 91(M) 94 (F)
What does Harper predict we’ll soon reach due to increase in LE?
- radical longevity w/ more centurions
Explain differences in LE between Genders?
Women live longer than men, but gap has decreased due to changes in employment/lifestyle.
Explain Walker’s Findings in relation to Impact of Regional Differences on LE?
Those living in poorest areas of UK die earlier than those richest areas.
Explain differences in LE between Occupations?
WC men in manual jobs die earlier > men in professional jobs.
Explain the Trend in Avg Age of Population
> Increasing
What 3 Factors is Ageing Population caused by?
> Increasing LE - People are living longer into old age
Declining IMR - Hardly anyone dies in infancy.
Declining Fertility - Fewer babies being born
3 Effects of an Ageing Population
> Public Services
One-Person Pensioner Households
Dependency Ratio
Explain the Effects of an Ageing Population on Public Services
- OAP’s 75+ take up larger proportion of health & social care services.
- Aswell as increased spending on healthcare, also means change in policies e.g. on housing and transport.
Explain the Effects of an Ageing Population on One-Person Pensioner Households
- Most female, as they live longer than men and usually younger than husbands
- Among 75+ 2x women > men
Explain the Effects of an Ageing Population on Dependency Ratio
- NO of Retired People Increase = Increases burden on working pop
How is the Effects of an Ageing Population on Dependency Ratio cancelled out?
Less kids being born
What is Ageism?
Negative stereotyping of ppl based on age.
Ageing Population Key Sociologists
> Philipson (Modern Society and Old Age) (Marxist Perspective)
> Hunt (Post Modern Society and Old Age)
> Pilcher (Inequality Among the Old)
> Age Concern 2004 (Stats on Age Discrimination)
> Hirsch (Policy Implications)
> Hirsch (Old Age as a Social Construct)
Explain Philipson’s view on Modern Society and Old Age - (Marxist Perspective)
- Identities and status’ based on our role in production, OAP’s are excluded from production, so have dependent status & stigmatised identity.
- OAP’s no longer productive, so no use to capitalism
- State are unwilling to support them, so family has to take responsibility for their care.’
- Old are excluded labour force, so made powerless.
Explain Hunt’s view on Post Modern Society and Old Age
- Fixed stages of life course have broken down.
- Later Marriage & early retirement, blur boundaries vs life stages
- Due to greater choice, we can choose our identities regardless of age
- e.g. through anti-ageism products, gym memberships and cosmetic surgery.
What are 2 Features of Postmodern Society that also undermine old age as a stigmatised life stage?
> Centrality of Media:
Media show +ve aspects of lifestyles of OAP’s
> Emphasis on Surface Features:
Body now surface where old can write identities for themselves, through Anti-Ageing Products.
How does Pilcher criticises Post Modernity through examples of Inequality Among the Old
> Class:
WC shorter LE & more illness. MC - greater savings salaries.
> Gender:
Women’s lower salaries & pensions & subject to sexist harassment e.g. ‘old hag’
How does Age Concern (2004) support the idea there are inequalities among the old?
29% suffered age discrimination > other forms of discrimination.
Explain Hirsch beliefs on Policy Implications
> We’ll need new policies to finance a longer old age
> e.g. higher taxes and raising retirement age.
> Housing policy could change to encourage OAP’s into smaller accommodation to, free up housing for young.
Explain Hirsch beliefs on Old Age is a Social Construct
> Not a fixed biological fact, but shaped and defined by society.
Define Migration
Movement of ppl from place to place, within a country or internationally.
Define Immigration
Refers to movement into a society
Define Emigration
Movement out a society
Define Net Migration
NO of ppl immigrating in - minus NO emigrating out.
Explain Trend in Immigration from 1900-40’s
Largest immigrant groups in UK was Irish, EU Jews & from Canada/USA.
Explain Trend in Immigration from 1950-70’s
Non-white immigrants began coming from Caribbean & South Asia
What was put in place to stop Non-White Immigration?
Immigration/Nationality Acts from 60s-90s put severe restrictions on non-white immigration.
Explain Trend in Immigration from 80’s
Non-whites made up a 1/4 of immigrants & white EU countries were main source of immigrants.
Explain the Trend in Emigration est 1900
Most emigrants went to USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
What is the reason for Trend in Emigration since 1900?
Who do these reasons contrast with?
> ‘PUSH’ factors: e.g. unemployment and economic recession
‘PULL’ factors: e.g. higher wages & better opportunities.
Reasons contrast vs some migrating for religious, political or persecution.
What are the 3 Impacts of Migration on UK Population Structure
> Population Size: UK Pop growing due to Migration.
> Age Structure: Lowers avg age directly and indirectly.
> Dependency Ratio
Impacts of Migration on Age Structure in relation to Population Structure
Lowers avg age, directly and indirectly
How does Migration directly lower the Age Structure?
Those migrating are usually of working age
How does Migration indirectly lower the Age Structure?
As they’re younger, immigrants are more fertile producing more babies.
How do Immigrants help lower the dependency ratio?
Immigrants are working age, helping lower DR w/ older migrants returning to country of origin to retire.
How do Immigrants increase the dependency ratio?
They’re younger so have more kids, increasing DR, but eventually they’ll join workforce lowering DR.
Define Globalisation
World is becoming more interconnected.
5 Main Aspects of Migration and Globalisation
> Acceleration > Differentiation > Super Diversity > Feminisation of Migration > Migrant Identities
Explain Acceleration in relation to Migration and Globalisation
> Speeding up of Migration.
> In 2000-2013 migration increased by 33%
Globalisation and Migration Key Sociologists
> Vertovec (Super-Diversity)
> Cohen (3 Types of Migrant)
> Ehrenreich & Hochschild (Feminisation of Migration)
> Shutes (Feminisation of Migration)
> Eade (Bengali Muslims Hybrid Identities)
> Eriksen (Transnational Identities)
> Castles (Problem w/ Assimilation Policies)
> Castles (A Divided WC)
Explain Differentiation and Vervtovec’s Idea of Superdiversity in relation to Migration and Globalisation
> Diff types of Migrants e.g. permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses, refugees etc.
> Led to super-diversity, where migrants come from variety of countries and have diff legal statuses
In relation to Super-Diversity, what are the 3 types of Migrant Cohen distinguishes between?
> Citizens
Denizens
Helots
Define Citizens
Have full rights
Define Denizens
Privileged foreign nationals
Define Helots
Most exploited group, disposable army of labour, in unskilled low paid work e.g. illegally trafficked workers.
What is the Feminisation of Migration?
- 1/2 of global migrants are female.
- Resulted in globalisation of gender DOL & female migrants given stereotyped roles as careers & providers of sexual services.
Explain Ehrenreich & Hochschild findings in relation to the Feminisation of Migration
- Dom and sex work, done by women from poor countries.
- Due to western women joining labour force & state’s failure to provide adequate childcare.
Explain Shutes’s findings in relation to the Feminisation of Migration
- 40% of adult care nurses in UK are migrants and most are female.
- Migrant women also enter UK as ‘mail order brides’ & victims of sex trafficking.
Define Hybrid Identities
- Someone’s sense of who they are is mixture of two or more influences
- e.g. person may be British but also see themselves as a Muslim and Pakistani.
What is Eade’s findings on Hybrid Identities in relation to Migrant Identities?
- Found 2nd gen Bengali Muslims in UK made hierarchical identities, saw themselves as Muslims 1st, then Bengali, then British.
- As a result they find, others accuse them of not fitting in.
Explain Eriksen view on Transnational Identities (1)
> Globalisation creates constant movements of ppl across the world rather than permanent settlement in 1 country
> So don’t see themselves belonging to 1 culture, but w/ transnational identities.
Explain Eriksen view Transnational Identities (2)
> Modern Tech makes it possible to keep global ties without needing to travel.
> Migrants have more links w/ other migrants than w/ country of origin/currently in.
> Usually don’t want to assimilate into ‘host country’.
What are the 2 approaches of the state to Immigration?
> Assimilationism
> Multiculturalism
Define Assimilationism in relation to approaches of the state to Immigration
- 1st state policy to immigration
- Encourages immigrants to adopt language, values & customs of host culture, to become ‘like us’.
- Failed as migrants want to keep
aspects of their ‘culture of origin’.
Define Multiculturalism in relation to approaches of the state to Migration
- Allows migrants to keep features of their original identity
- But may be limited to superficial differences e.g. food (shallow diversity)
- Not important ones e.g. veiling of women (deep diversity)
What lead to Politicians demanding Migrants assimilate culturally?
9/11’ e.g in France veiling of face was made illegal.
Explain Castles view on Problem w/ Assimilation Policies
- Assimilationist policies are counterproductive, as they see BAME as other.
- BAME respond emphasising differences
- Increases host suspicion of them, making assimilation unlikely.
Explain Castles Idea of a Divided WC?
- Assimilationist ideas may encourage workers, to blame migrants for problems
- Creating a racially divided WC.
