Definitions for Midterm Flashcards
Majority Language
- languages highly valued in society
- spoken by a majority of people, including the power elite
- predominate in mass media and public institutions
Minority Language
- language less valued by society
- spoken by fewer people
- not present or less evident in media or public institutions
Heritage Language
a minority language (either immigrant or indigenous) learned by its speakers at home as children, and difficult to be fully developed because of insufficient input from the social environment. The speakers grow up with a different dominant language in which they become more competent.
Social Prestige
the degree of respect that a variety of language has
Official Languages
- language that is designated by law as the language of the society
Monolingual
(of a person or society) speaking only one language.
Bilingual
- the regular use of two (or more) languages
- use of these languages in their everday lives
Multilingual
in or using several languages.
Dialect
a particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group.
Idiolect
the speech habits peculiar to a particular person.
Bidialectal
proficient in or using two dialects of the same language.
NonMainstream American English Speaker (NMAE)
refers to a variety of dialects including African American English, Appalachian English, Caribbean English Creoles, Chicano/Latino English, Hawaiian Creole English, and Southern American English.
Mainstream American English Speaker (MAE/SAE)
to refer to the kind of spoken or written English that is taught in schools and is used in the workplace, in newspapers, on news broadcasts, and by politicians
Contrastive Feature
- features that differentiate languages/dialects
Non-contrastive feature
- common features across both languages/dialects
Code-switching
- systematic and rule-governed
- bilinguals switching from one name language to the other
- is appropriate for all learners of all ages/proficiency levels
Translanguaging
- ## deployment of the speaker’s full repertoire without regard to named languages and grammars
Simultaneous Bilingualism
Both languages are learned from birth or soon after birth
Sequential Bilingualism
occurs when a person becomes bilingual by first learning one language and then another
Early/Late Bilingualism
Early bilinguals will mostly have acquired their second language naturally, in particular when we are speaking about a pre-school child. (cf. Hofmann 1997: 34) The term late bilingualism refers to people who have learned their second language during adulthood or in other words after the age of puberty.
First Language (L1)
- First language learned by a sequential bilingual
Second Language (L2)
- Second language learned by a sequential bilingual
Language Proficiency
relates to a person’s ability to produce and understand a particular language
Language Dominance
the relative strength of a bilingual’s proficiency in each language
Emergent Bilingualism
students who are continuing to develop their home language while also learning an additional language.
Additive Bilingualism
- a bilingual context in which a bilingual child develops a second language at no cost to the first language
Subtractive Bilingualism
- a bilingual context in which the L1 proficiency is negatively impacted by exposure to L2
Language Loss
It may be on a personal or familial level, which is often the case with immigrant communities in the United States, or the entire language may be lost when it ceases to be spoken at all.
Cummins’ Threshold Model
Students whose academic proficiency in the language of instruction is relatively weak will tend to fall further and further behind unless the instruction they receive enables them to comprehend the input (both written and oral) and participate academically in class.
Cummins’ Interdependence Model
BICS
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) refer to linguistic skills needed in everyday, social face-to-face interactions. For instance, the language used in the playground, on the phone, or to interact socially with other people is part of BICS. The language used in these social interactions is context embedded
- cognitively undemanding
CALP
cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) focuses on proficiency in academic language or language used in the classroom in the various content areas. Academic language is characterized by being abstract, context reduced, and specialized.
- cognitively demanding
Translanguaging Models of Language
Schooling Model: Transitional Education
Goal: English Acquisition
- Segregated Bilingual education
Schooling Models- Dual Language Immersion
Goal: Bilingualism
- Integrated bilingual education
Schooling Models- Pullout or Standalone Language Services
Goal: English Acquisition
- segregated english only
Schooling Models- ESL Integrated into Core Learning
Goal: English Acquisition
- English only integrated
English Learner (state definitions)
Validity
the extent to which a test accurately measures what it is supposed to measure
Content Relevance
the test is testing what is concerned (ex. use the GFTA because there is a worry about articulation)
Content Coverage
Construct Validity
concerns how well a set of indicators represent or reflect a concept that is not directly measurable
Divergent Validity
ndicates that the results obtained by this instrument do not correlate too strongly with measurements of a similar but distinct trait
Face Validity
the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims.
Predictive Validity
the degree to which test scores accurately predict scores on a criterion measure
Concurrent Validity
a type of evidence that can be gathered to defend the use of a test for predicting other outcomes
Age Group Differentiation
Diagnostic Group Differentiation
Reliability
- is the degree to which an observed score reflects the true score and is
is free of error - reflects the consistency of results
- loss of reliability= loss of validity
- relability= precision= lack of error
Test-Retest
- how stable is a test score over a period of time in which it is not expected to change?
- “test stability”
- assess different sources of error that contribute to the reliability of the test
- thing I measure today, should be the thing I measure tomorrow- if it is not, usually signs of error
Intra-examiner
the error associated with people doing the rating/examining: How consistent is an examiner within him/herself
Split Half
- Correlate two halves of the same test.
○ Reliable tests should have strongly correlated halves - There’s no lag time between tests, and the same physical, mental, and
environmental influences will affect subjects as they take both sections of the test - will generally underestimate the true reliability of the
scale because reliability is proportional to the number of items in the
scale
Confidence Interval
Confidence intervals measure the degree of uncertainty or certainty in a sampling method.
- speaking a 95% confidence interval means that if we were to take 100 different samples and compute a 95% confidence interval for each sample, then approximately 95 of the 100 confidence intervals will contain the true mean value
Standard Error of Measurement
- ways that the test is a good/poor indicator of performance
Discrepancy Score
a numerical value that captures the discrepancy between the presence of the topic in the time interval and that outside the interval.
Unbiased Assessment
one that does not systematically and consistently disadvantage one group of test takers over another group
Item Analysis
Discriminant Analysis
Sensitivity
a test’s ability to designate an individual with disease as positive. A highly sensitive test means that there are few false negative results, and thus fewer cases of disease are missed.
Specificity
its ability to designate an individual who does not have a disease as negative. A highly specific test means that there are few false positive results.
Screening Tool
-Rapidly tests a set of tasks thought to be indicators of other concerns
* Should be fast to administer and score (ideally <15 min per child)
* Best if can be administered by less-skilled individuals or in group settings
- pass or retest result
Over Diagnosis (false positive)
when someone is diagnosed even though they do not have the disorder
Under Diagnosis (false negative)
when someone is not diagnosed even though they do have the disorder
Empirical cut-off
ROC Curve
helps to set an empirically
derived cutoff that optimizes
sensitivity and specificity for a
particular marker (test score)
Normal Curve based cut-off
Norm-referenced
● Individual performance is determined by relative ranking among the group
of individuals who took the test
● The group scores to which each individual is compared are referred to as norms or the normative sample or normative group or norming sample, or
standardization sample.
Standardized
these scores compare a single person’s score against a reference sample
Criterion-referenced
designed to measure a student’s academic performance against some standard or criteria. This standard or criteria is predetermined before students begin the test.
Converging Evidence
the way that different and independent sources all support one conclusion over another
- scores support parent questionnaire
Clinical Marker
are bio/behavioral
markers that are nearly always
observed in the presence of true
disease/disorder
Modified Scoring
scoresthat are changed: “given” to the students
- result in underdiagnosing and hurt the reliability and validity
Item Bias
examines whether the construction of an index from two or more variables results in bias in relation to sex, age, or other criteria. Item bias may lead to erroneous conclusions because of distortion or dilution of the effects measured
Normative Sample
the sample from which norms are obtained and consists only of a part of individuals from a reference population: (comparing test scores of a 12 year old to other 12-year-olds)
Normal Curve Equivalent
another way of measuring student performance relative to other students, in this case where a student falls along the normal curve
Percentile Rank
The percentile rank expresses the percent of test takers who score lower than the present test taker. These percentile ranks are dependent on the normative distribution of the test.
Percent
1:100 ratio
Raw Score
a single score that is derived from a test or an observation
- not useful by itself: should be converged into a percent
Age Equivalent
Represents an examinee’s test performance in terms of the age in which the median individual’s performance matches that of the examinee
Grade Equivalent
- Represent the median score for children at various grade levels
● Frequently used for academic achievement tests
Modifiability
Functional or Contextualized Task
Decontextualised Tasks
Skewed Distribution
SPELT-III
Normed on 5-9 year olds who spoke SAE. A test of grammatical markers that are commonly impaired in DLD including heavy weighting towards tense and agreement. Includes 52 items and a mix of grammar/syntax elicitation probes. Empirically derived cut point is 95; 1 sd below the mean is 85.
SPELT-P2
Normed on 3-6 year olds who spoke SAE. A test of grammatical markers that are commonly impaired in DLD including heavy weighting towards tense and agreement. A test of grammatical markers that are commonly impaired in DLD. Includes 26 items and a mix of grammar/syntax elicitation probes. Empirically derived cut point is 87; 1 sd below the mean is 85.
EVT-3
Normed on 2-99 year olds. A test of expressive vocabulary (naming, synonyms, categorization). Children with DLD tend to score in the low normal range on this test. Co-normed with the PPVT-5
PPVT-5
Normed on 2-99 year olds. A test of receptive vocabulary (4AFC). Children with DLD tend to score in the low normal range on this test. Co-normed with the EVT-3
DELV-NR
Normed on children 4-9 who spoke many varieties of English. Includes Semantics, Syntax, Phonology and Pragmatics subtests. Yields a single comprehensive impairment score. Normative score (mean 100, SD 15) and subtest scores (mean 10, SD 7)
TNL-2
Normed on children 4-16. Children answer questions about and tell 3 stories of varying complexity. Comprehension story provides a model for a similar story difficulty/structure for production. Assesses story grammar and use of vocabulary and grammar specific to the topics. Yields Comprehension and Production subtest scores.
CTOPP-2
Normed on ages 4-25. Has 12 subtests that combine to form composites for phonological awareness, phonological memory, rapid automatic naming of letters, rapid automatic naming of pictures, and phonological awareness of nonwords. Composites have a mean of 100 and a SD of 15.
BESA
A test for 4-6 year old children who speak Spanish and English. Subtests include morphosyntax and semantics in each language. The best language score is used to determine the cut-off Cut-offs are age specific scores designed to optimize sensitivity and specificity. For example the morphosyntax cutoff at age 6 is 81 and at age 5 is 78.
CELF-IV-English
An omnibus composite test of language skill normed on SAE speakers. Has many subtests addressing vocabulary knowledge, morphosyntax skills, pragmatics, and phonological awareness that can be combined to form a core language score (M=100, SD = 15). SEM is +/-6 for the composite scores and +/- 1 for subtest scores. Modified scoring is available.
CELF-IV-Spanish
An omnibus composite test of language skill normed on monolingual Spanish speakers. Has many subtests addressing vocabulary knowledge, morphosyntax skills, pragmatics, and phonological awareness that can be combined to form a core language score (M=100, SD = 15). SEM is +/-6 for the composite scores and +/- 1 for subtest scores. Published data suggests it over-identifies low income and bilingual children.
TILLS
An omnibus test of language skill normed on MAE speakers ages 6-21. Designed to differentiate dyslexia and DLD from Typical development. Unique because it develops percentile ranks based on distributional curves other than the normal curve.
1954: Brown vs Board of Education
Ruled that racial segregation
was illegal
Was used to argue that
segregation based on
disability was also illegal
1971: Ricky Wyatt vs. Stickney
held for the first time that people
who are involuntarily committed to
state institutions because of
mental illness or developmental
disabilities have a constitutional
right to treatment that will afford
them a realistic opportunity to
return to society.”
972: PARC vs. Pennsylvania &
Mills vs. Board of Education
Previously, many states denied
children who had not obtained a
“mental age” of 5 years access
to public education
These rulings stated that all
children had a right to public
education
Educational services must be
based on children’s needs, not
the district’s financial resources
Lary P v. Riles, 1972, 1979
6 parents sued superintendent
of instruction for the state of
California
Children placed in special
education classes on the basis
of biased tests
Students received minimal
instruction and were
permanently segregated from
peers
Implication: Biased
assessments cannot be used to
determine student placements.
1973: Rehabilitation Act
prohibits discrimination against any
otherwise qualified persons with disabilities in any program or
activity receiving federal funds.
Was initially vetoed by Nixon in 1972
Was not immediately implemented
Section 504
Reasonable Accommodations
Broader definition of disability/handicap
Earliest school based requirements
- Schools must provide reasonable accommodations & a written
plan for those accommodations to ensure implementation to
ensure FAPE
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 1975
AKA, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1998,
2004)
Establishes the legal basis for special education
Guaranteed “a free and appropriate education … in the
least restrictive environment” for EVERY child
- 6 key provisions
FAPE – Free appropriate public education
IEP - Unique needs
LRE – Least Restrictive Environment
Due Process
Nondiscriminatory Assessment
Parental Participation
1984 Baby Doe Law
Prohibits parents and doctors from denying life-saving medical treatment to a baby with disabilities
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
Mandates that buildings be accessible
Accessible housing
Reasonable accommodations for employment
No Child Left Behind
Children with disabilities count towards their school’s record
Principal told my colleague that she wanted her special education teachers to participate in a PD because “those kids count now.
Every Student Succeeds Act
Returns accountability efforts to the states
Caps 1% of student receiving alternate
assessments but does not define who that is
Requires states to address disproportionate
effects on individuals with disabilities:
Bullying & Harassment,
Restraint & Seclusion,
Suspensions & Expulsions
- requires MTSS
Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896
Separate but equal – Case about bus cars
Principle led to students being segregated by race/language
Children in CA with Spanish last names were separated without
assessment of English
Mendez v. Westminster, 1947
Desegregated schools in Orange County, CA
Held that separate schools violate the 14th amendment
Civil Rights Act, 1964 - Title IV
Bans discrimination on the basis of race, color, national
origin for programs receiving federal funding
Bilingual Education Act of 1968
an amendment to ESEA
Grant funds to education for children with limited English-
speaking ability
Did not require a proficiency target or teaching method
Lau v Nichols, 1974
- Chinese families sued over a sink or swim policy in San Francisco Schools
Ruled that this policy violated the civil rights act
Consent decree required that all children receive enough support that language was not a barrier to
education
Court oversight of SFUSD ended in 2019
Equal Education Opportunity Act, 1974
Prohibited gender, racial, ethnic discrimination in
education
Outlawed intentional segregation within schools
Required removal of barriers that impede curricular
access
Casteñada v. Pickering, 1981
Sued over continued ethnic segregation of schools in Texas
Clarified separate school tests to strengthen understanding of requirements for bilingual
education
Pyler v Doe, 1981
schools cannot inquire about or deny FAPE on the basis of immigration status
994, 1998 – California
Prop 187 restricted education of immigrants/immediately overturned;
Prop 227 required education toward English fluency as fast as possible
Bilingual Education: No child left behind
- Focus on English proficiency & academic readiness
Formula grants based on number of English learners and immigrant students
Increased Accountability for assessing progress in English
Annual testing/measurable objectives focused on English (not home-language) proficiency
Teachers must be fluent in English and the language of the classroom
Bilingual Education: Every Student Succeeds Act – Title 1 & Title III - 2015
Connected funding to low-income students
State level rules for who was classified as eligible and how to exit
Annual assessments assigned with multiple levels of proficiency
Terms Used in Federal Policy: Limited English Speaking Ability
Bilingual Education Act 1968
Terms Used in Federal Policy: Limited English Proficient
Reauthorisation of the Bilingual Education Act 1978
Terms Used in Federal Policy: English Language Learner
No Child Left Behind Act
Terms Used in Federal Policy: English Learner
Every Student Succeeds Act
Terms Used in Federal Policy: Emergent Bilingual
TBD
Clinical Marker: DLD
- percent grammatical utterances
- use of tense and agreement markers
- sentence repetition skills
Clinical Marker: ADHD
- Child activity level
Clinical Marker: Dyslexia
- phonological awareness
- ability to sound out novel words
- rapid automatic naming
Clinical Marker: Autism
- repetitive play
- lack of interest in reciprocal interactions
