Definition list Flashcards
1
Q
Advertising
A
Any form of paid communication by an identified sponsor aimed to inform
and/or persuade target audiences about an organization, product, service, or idea
2
Q
Informational/argument-
based appeal
A
Straightforwardly informing the consumer about the product, price and where it can be
bought
3
Q
Emotional/affect based
appeal
A
Aims to influence the consumers’ feeling/emotion rather than his of her thoughts about
the product.
4
Q
Cognitive effect of
advertising
A
Recognition and memory of the ad, brand or product. Beliefs/thoughts about the ad,
brand, or product. You want to influence the beliefs or thoughts people have about the
product.
5
Q
Affective effect of
advertising
A
Product liking. Emotional response to an ad (e.g., surprise, fear, or interest). What do
people feel toward the ad or the product? Associate the feeling with the product. They
want to influence your emotions during the commercial (product liking)
6
Q
Behavioral effect of
advertising
A
Purchase intention and buying the product
7
Q
Preattentive stage
A
This is the scanning stage. They pay not much attention. But it will still have an impact
through unconscious/implicit memory which can be retrieved later. This unconsciousness
processing can still impact your behavior. general, non-goal directed, ‘surveillance’ of
the environment.
8
Q
Perceptual analysis
A
physical features (colors, contrasts). For a long time, they thought that this was the only
thing that happened in this stage. This means that the memory of an ad only influence
behavior if the product is exactly the same as in the ad.
9
Q
Conceptual analysis
A
product use, usage of situation. Can have a strong effect on our behavior. Can also affect
the behavior when it. The first evidence for this idea was the experiment of Shapiro
10
Q
Matching activation
hypothesis
A
when one hemisphere is activated (e.g. the left hemisphere because text is shown) the
other (e.g. the right) is also triggered to process other materials on which you do not pay
focal attention to more fully.
11
Q
Hedonic fluency
A
The subjective ease with which a stimulus can be perceived and Processed. So basically,
how easy you process specific stimuli
12
Q
Perceptual fluency
A
Easy to read font or hard to read font
13
Q
Conceptual fluency
A
conceptual match between the product and the ad
14
Q
Familiarity
A
important factor that helps the easy of processing (repetitive songs)
15
Q
Mere exposure
A
If you have a neutral object and if you see this product more often then people
feel more positive about this product.
16
Q
Focal attention stage
A
after noticing a stimulus, it may be brought into conscious Awareness where it is
identified and categorized. You should be a little involved in this stage
17
Q
Salience
A
the extent to which a stimulus is noticeable different from its environment.
Stimulus draws attention because it is different with respect to its context and
therefore, possibly interesting (can be done with humor)
18
Q
Vividness
A
Emotionally interesting, concrete and image provoking and proximate in
temporal or spatial way
19
Q
Novelty
A
the extent to which information is unfamiliar and unexpected. Produces surprise
response.
20
Q
Comprehension stage
A
It is important for achieving persuasion, especially when careful and effortful
information processing is needed.
21
Q
Elaborative reasoning
stage
A
Stimulus is actively related to previously stored. Consumer knowledge: Requires full
consciousness and the Consumer motivation and ability should be high
22
Q
Extent of thinking
A
how superficial/deep are you thinking about the ad/product/ brand
23
Q
Valance of thinking
A
how negative/positive are you thinking about the ad/product/brand?
24
Q
Object of thinking
A
about what are you thinking?
25
Elaborative reasoning –
Self-schema
the way people see themselves (values/beliefs). Product information in advertising is
congruent with self-schema? Motivates consumer to process information more fully
26
Meta cognition
Thoughts about thoughts: People reflect on their own thoughts and draw inferences from that * ‘I have a thought about my friend a lot, I must miss her’
27
Alpha strategies
By directly increasing the attractiveness of the offer or the message these strategies serve
to increase the tendency to move toward the advocated position and influence a
consumer’s approach motivation. include the use of strong, compelling arguments that
justify accepting the message position, or communication scarcity
28
Omega strategies
By reducing consumer reluctance to accept the position these strategies can persuade
because they reduce/minimize the tendency to move away from the position and
influence a consumer’s avoidance motivation
29
The naïve approach
states that advertising simply must be effective because it is so omnipresent, and
expenditures are vast and ever increasing.
30
The economic approach
correlates advertising expenditures with changes in sales volume in order to address the
effects.
31
The media approach
suggests that effectiveness is conceptualized in terms of the number of individuals in a
target population who have been exposed to a message, thereby looking at the ‘reach’ of
the message. The problem is that it cannot inform on the impact of the exposure.
32
The creative approach
states that a message is effective to the extent that is it well-made and creative.
33
The psychological
approach
the perspective adopted by this book – aims at identifying advertising effects at the
individual level. Specific advertising stimuli are related to specific and individual
consumer responses. It also seeks to articulate the intrapersonal, interpersonal, or group-
level psychological processes that are responsible for the relationship between ad stimuli
and consumer responses.
34
Cognitive consumer
responses
Beliefs and thoughts about brands, products, and services that consumer generate in
response to advertising. They include brand awareness, recall and recognition, but also
associations, attitudes and preferences.
35
Source credibility
Credibility includes the dimensions of source expertise and trustworthiness. It mainly
influences message processing and persuasion when recipients are not very motivated to
process the message. Trustworthiness can be conveyed by stressing that the message
source does not have a vested interest in delivering the message.
36
Source attractiveness
Many products are sold by appealing to sexual attraction and beauty. Attractiveness
frequently functions as a halo: what is beautiful is good. The attractiveness halo-effect
can easily extend beyond the model itself to positively affect the products with which
he/she is associated.
37
Message sidedness
A one-sided message is classic, biased ad with arguments supporting a conclusion
favorable to the advertised brand. Two-sided advertisements include both positive and
negative, or supporting and counterarguments. One-sided messages are more persuasive
when recipients are favorably disposed to the message issue, while two-sided messages
are more effective when the issue is unfamiliar/unfavorable to consumers.
38
Word-of-mouth (WOM)
Takes place when a product user tries to convince others to try the product as well.
39
The matching activation
hypothesis
when one hemisphere is activated by the information that accommodates the processing
style of that particular hemisphere, the other one is encouraged to elaborate on secondary
material.
40
Hemispheric lateralization
implies that our brain hemispheres have evolved specialized processing units for specific
types of information.
o Hemispheric lateralization
Left – text
Right – pictures
o The things you see in your left visual field are processed by your right
hemisphere, and vice versa
o When you focus your attention on text (processed in left hemisphere), you
should place the picture on to the left of the text (so it can be processed by
right hemisphere)
o Even if brand names are not consciously attended to, if they are put in the
right place, they can e easily processed by the unused hemisphere (and
ultimately influence consumer attitudes and behavior)
41
Ease of retrieval
Ease with which product-and brand-related information can be retrieved from
memory: A meta-cognitive process that influences persuasion. A form of hedonic
fluency. Meta cognition can influence consumer judgement (BMW-experiment)
42
Categorization
The process by which incoming information is classified, that is, labeled as belonging to
one or more categories based on a comparative assessment of features of the category
and the incoming information
43
Pioneering advantage
reflects the pioneering of a novel category and becoming the most prototypical
representative of that category. The pioneer decides on what attributes competitors are
judged, and competitors are judged on those attributes only after the pioneer, creating a winning situation for the pioneer.
44
Assimilation
In assimilation objects are classified as more similar to the parent category than they
really are when the object and category are perceived as more congruent
45
self-schema
Cognitive generalization about the self that is comprised of a more or less comprehensive
set of traits, values and beliefs that exerts a powerful influence on information processing
46
Self-validation
reflects the subjective confidence consumers have in their thoughts and evaluations in
response to persuasive messages
47
Representativeness
heuristic
the extent to which two stimuli are deemed to belong to the same overall category based
on shared similarities. This might be used to predict whether consumers categorize a new
product as a true innovation or perceive it as similar to existing products
48
Memory
Records, stores and retrieves information. It influences perception, encoding and storage
49
Encoding
Getting info in the system.
50
Storage
involves information retention (short term and long term)
51
Retrieval
finds information from memory (so you can use it for instance)
52
Speed of retrieval
retrieval from short-term memory is faster than from long-term memory.
53
Capacity
short-term memory is more limited; it can only hold 5-7 pieces of unrelated information.
54
Serial position effects
items presented at the beginning (primacy) and at the end (recency) of a list are recalled
earlier and more often than items in the middle. Primacy items can be rehearsed and
stored in the long-term memory, while the last items still reside within the short-term
memory.
55
Memory code
long-term memory relies mainly on semantic codes, while short-term memory uses
acoustic/phonological coding.
56
Neuropsychology
patients who suffer from amnesia may have perfect short- or long-term memories while
the long- or short-term memory is impaired.
57
Memory as separate
systems (model) -
Atkinsons & Shiffrin
Some sensory input will come into your sensory memory. If you don’t do anything with
this information, this information will be lost (not encoded) If you do something with
this information, it will be placed in the short-term memory and if you work with this
information, you rehearse it and it will be stored in the long-term memory. If you not
store it in the LTM, you will lose this information in a while.
58
The primacy effect
Items that are presented at the beginning are better recalled than the items at the
middle of the list (because you rehearsed more often)
59
The recency effect
Items presented at the end of the list are better remember than the items at the middle of
the list (The are still in your short-term memory)
60
The central executive
It’s supervises and coordinate a number of sub systems. And they focused on two sub
systems: Phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.
61
Phonological
responsible for the short-term storage of sound and speech-based information
62
Visuospatial sketchpad
brief storage and manipulation of visual information.
63
Episodic buffer
stores and integrates information from the long-term memory, the phonological loop and
the visuospatial sketchpad.
64
Declarative or explicit
memory
Is characterized by a person’s conscious recollection of facts or events. Subcategories are
episodic and semantic memory
65
Episodic memory
refers to a memory about a specific event that occurred at a particular place and time. For
example, do you remember whether you have ever been to Paris?
66
Semantic memory
memory refers to the mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about
words and other verbal symbols, their meaning and referents, about relations among
them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms.
67
Word stem completion
Measuring implicit memory. COM.... You see the first couple of letters, and you have to
finish the word.
68
Word fragment
identification
Measuring implicit memory. What word is this? C.M.U.ER
69
Lexical decision task
People react faster when they have seen the word before.
70
Supraliminal primes
people are unaware of the connection of the two stimuli.
71
Subliminal primes
People are unaware of the stimulus (banned now)
72
Product placement
Products place in movies/series.
73
High-involvement
products
products that are infrequently bought and often they are really expensive
(cameras/cars/houses). Product where you think about a lot before you buy it. So, they
have a consider-chose strategy. You think more explicitly about this purchase
74
Low involvement products
You make the choice automatically. They require little information before you have to
make a decision (household product that you buy repetitively). They make the purchase
on habits and familiarity
75
Online decisions
Decisions that we make as we take in the information. So, as we read about the product,
we make our decision (consumer-reviews). Recalled arguments weakly related to
evaluation. Here evaluation is not related to the product. Elaborate on the info; rely mor
eon this elaboration than on the information itself. So, we rely more on our reaction, than
the information we already have.
76
Memory based decision
decision where you retrieve the information later on
77
Stimulus based choice
in the present of the product. The product is right there
78
Retroactive interference
when later learned material affects current learning or when current material
affects earlier learned knowledge.
79
Proactive interference
When there is interference of earlier learned material on learning now.
80
Retrieval cues
when the people go to the shop, remind consumer about the commercial that the have
seen. For instance, if you used the polar bear in your commercial, in the store, put the
polar bear next to the Coca-Cola bottles. These retrieval cues seem to really help about
remembering about what the saw in the add
81
Associative network-
models
models conceive of mental representations of each isolated piece of knowledge as a
discrete node connected to other nodes by links of various types. Each concept/attribute
is represented by a node
82
Attitude
important/strong determinant of behavior
83
Implicit attitude
are evaluations of which the individual is typically not aware and which influence
(re)actions over which the individual has little to no control.
84
Explicit attitude
are evaluations of which the individual is consciously aware, and which can be expressed
using self-report measures
85
Measuring attitude – Self-
report
Ask people; on what extend do you agree and disagree. This is very straight forward.
86
File-drawer model
attitudes are learned and retrieved from long-term memory and are therefore stable. You
will get a look in these file drawers and you will see if you are positive or negative about
something
87
Attitudes-as-
constructions-theory
attitudes are not necessarily enduring but are constructed “online”. The moment that you
see the add, you will consider how you feel about it and you will construct some attitude
in the present moment
88
Attitude – Accessibility
how easy and fast it pops up in your mind. How fast do people retrieve this association
between the object and their evaluation from their memory. The more accessible, the
easier and faster this goes in your head, this results in a stronger attitude
89
Importance (Strong
attitude)
The extend to which you care about the attitude object. If it is important to you, you will
think about this more and read about the more. You have a stronger attitude because it is
more strongly in your memory
90
Knowledge
The more knowledge you have (climate change) the easier it becomes to evaluate information and you can form an opinion about this better because you know more, and
this makes it a better memory, and this will cause in a stronger attitude
91
Ambivalence
the more ambivalence you are, the weaker the attitude. Ambivalence is that you have
both positive and negative ideas about the same object. You have one attitude object and
you are positive and negative about it
92
Heuristics (cognitive
factor)
Quick rules of the thumb that people use when they form an opinion
93
Conditioning (affective)
if you have this positive feelings or relevant associations it gets transferred to the brand
or the product. You will stick this positive feeling on the brand.
94
Conceptual association
You want the DHL to be associated with speed. They will sponsor formula 1 and people
will associate the formula 1 speed with the delivery of DHL. Same with the puppy on
page. You relate the softness from the puppy with the softness of the toilet paper
95
Celebrity endorsement
The positivity towards the celebrity becomes connected to the brand. So, if you like brad
pit, you will like Chanel more, because it is connected to the brand. This is tricky,
because it depends on the target group. You need to know which celebrity works for your
target group. If you mismatch, then this is not an effective strategy
96
Affect-as-information
hypotheses
It is the feeling that people have, and they use this as a base for their evaluation. If you
feel good, you will give the brand a positive evaluation.
97
Self perception theory
People infer their attitudes based on the perception of their own behavior. You form
yourself with the perception with what you just did (I just read a book, so I must like
reading).
98
Adjustment function
this is a general idea that people are positive or negative to approach to avoid stuff. It is
relevant to know where you are going, you go where you like the stuff
99
Ego defensive function
attitudes can protect one’s self-concept. You protect yourself with holding this positive
attitude (smoking)
100
Value expressive function
They can convey who you are as a person. You can explicitly express that you are this
MAC lover for instance, to express yourself.
101
Knowledge function
it helps you to organize all the stuff around you. It gives you a nice structured view. This
is what I like, and this is what I don’t like.
102
Utilitarian reasons
This are performance, reliability and the quality. It is the utility of the product that makes
you buy it. The functionality of a washing machine
103
Hedonic reasons
Pleasure of form owning and consuming or using a product. The arguments of buying
such a thing is very different. Here the pleasure is more important than the utilitarian
focus.
104
Self-expression reasons
You can show who you are with products. You can show your wealth by buying
expensive stuff.
105
Identity building reasons
You can buy stuff to become who you want to be. You want to be a sustainable person, so
you buy a sustainable backpack
106
Evaluative-cognitive
consistency
the consistency between people’s attitudes towards an attitude object and the evaluative
implications of their beliefs about the object. More consistent attitudes are more resistant
to social influence than attitudes of low consistency.
107
Stereotypes
Beliefs about the attributes of members of an outgroup – on attitudes towards members
of that group (prejudice).
108
Brand image
refers to the beliefs, feelings, and evaluations triggered by a brand name. Brand images
are strongly influenced by advertising and are considered to be the consumer equivalent
to stereotypes in intergroup relations.
109
Brand equity
the equivalent of prejudice. Where prejudice is considered bad, brand equity is
considered good. A brand associated with high quality can improve product ratings.
110
The country of origin
another heuristic people can use to judge a product. It is especially important in buying
food, because consumers believe that ethnic food products are likely to be better if they
come from the country from which the food originated.
111
Mere exposure
Mere exposure on attitudes towards unfamiliar and novel stimuli become more positive
with increasing frequency of exposure
112
Classical conditioning
a neutral stimulus that is initially incapable of eliciting a particular response (conditioned
stimulus, CS), gradually acquires the ability to do so through repeated association with a stimulus that already evokes this response (unconditioned stimulus, US).
113
The dual mediation
hypothesis
states that the attitude towards advertisements influences brand attitudes through two
pathways: indirectly via brand cognitions, and directly via evaluative conditioning
114
Knowledge (ability)
if you have more knowledge, you can think about it more carefully. You also can process
it more deeply
115
Distraction / time pressure
The more distracted you are/the more time pressure you feel and the more you will go for
116
Repetition
if you seen an add more, the changes are higher that you process the message correctly.
117
Fear appeals
If personally relevant, people might become fearful. The idea is that you want to regulate
the fear and that the customer changes his behavior. This is the ultimate goal.
118
Self-efficacy
the belief that you are able to succeed in a specific action.
119
Humor paradox
Consumers forget the product, but still want to have it (because the positive
associations). This is probably only true for low involvement products with unrelated
humor
120
Yale Reinforcement
Approach
Approach assumes that exposure to a persuasive communication which successfully
induces the individual to accept a new opinion forms a learning experience in which a
new verbal habit is acquired. Receivers of a persuasive message will only accept the
recommended attitudinal response if the incentives associated with this response are
greater than those associated with their current position.
121
Source effect
The impact of the source of a communication on persuasion – showed that attribution of
a communication to either a prestigious or a non-prestigious source influences the
target’s evaluation of the communication.
122
Fear-arousing
communication
the acceptance of a recommendation that would reduce the threat showed that the
weakest appeal was most effective in changing attitudes and behavior. They explained
their findings using the term ‘defensive avoidance’ and argued that a strong fear appeal is
so threatening that it is more effective for receivers to reduce fear by rejecting the appeal
as alarmist rather than accepting the recommendation. However, later studies show that
recipients’ willingness to accept a recommendation increases when the fear appeal
increases in strength.
123
Cosmetic variation
non-substantive features of an advertisement that are not essential in evaluating the
product are altered in order to avoid/delay boredom.
124
Substantive variation
involves a change in message content, e.g. in the type of arguments made in order to
avoid/delay boredom. Once processing intensity increases, cosmetic variation will be
ineffective and only substantive variation will reduce boredom/tedium.
125
Source congruity
which reflects the match between cognitively accessible endorser associations and
attributes associated with the brand. This becomes important under high processing
intensity. Source congruity not only applies to physical attractiveness, but also to other
attributes of a source, such as sturdiness
126
drive-reduction model
This model assumed that higher fear should result in more persuasion, but only if the
recommended action is perceived as effective in averting danger.
127
Need for cognition
The extent to which individuals engage and enjoy effort-full cognitive activity. Argument
quality has a higher impact on attitudes of people who are high rather than low in need
for cognition.
128
Need for cognitive closure
which refers to the desire for a definite answer on some topic, any answer as opposed to
confusion and ambiguity. This need is thought to reflect both a stable individual
difference, as well as a state that can be induced by the situational context, like time
pressure.
129
Two-sided advertisement
Two-sided advertisements mention both positive and negative features of a product. They
appear as more honest and stand out from other advertisements. In the optimal case, only
the negative attributes which are trivial or of which the consumer is already aware are
mentioned. Hereby serious product deficiencies must be avoided, while admitting utterly
trivial deficiencies may be too obvious.
130
Massclusivity
Focus on the broadest target group you can think of. It means exclusivity for you, you and you, so for the broadest target group you can think off.
131
Principle of magical
mission
The magical mission is not about what you do, but about what you mean to the customer.
It is not about the physical experience but about what you mean for the brand as a
consumer
132
Principle of conflict
Branding is about solving the conflict in your head for the category of the products. The
market leader will probably be the one who solves the best conflict which conflicts in
your head. Each market has its conflict.
133
Theory of plannend
behavior
Peoples behavior is influences by their intentions. Their intentions are affected by the
attitude towards the behavior, your subjective norm and people’s behavioral control
134
Behavioral beliefs
The beliefs about the outcome of the behavior
135
Evaluation of the
behavioral outcomes
Being a smoker is desire for you
136
Subjective norm
What do other people do and what is the norm in the society?
137
Normative beliefs
My friends think that I have to smoke
138
The motivation to comply
How much do you care about what other people think and act on it?
139
Perceived power
Do you believe that you have the power to control it
140
Identity similarity
The extent to which performing a behavior would be consistent with people’s self
concept and thus serve their self-expression goals. Do you see yourself as someone how
belongs to the target group? It is part of your self-concept?
141
Anticipated regret
Our anticipated emotions already influence our behavior and perhaps also our behavior
intentions. This is often use in advertising: please ensure yourself for the product,
otherwise you will regret it. This is what advertisers often use
142
Automatic processes
Processes that occur without intention, effort or awareness and do not interfere with
other concurrent cognitive processes. The attitude, norms and behavior can be
influenced by the environment or other people without conscious awareness.
143
The chameleon effect
This suggest that we tend to automatically mimic behavior of others. If you mirror a
certain person, research has shown that you like them more and affiliated more with this
people.
144
Perception-behavior link
This is relevance for the stereotypes that we have about certain groups and the
behavioral consequences of it. Stereotypes activation leads to consistent behavior.
145
Habits
learned sequences of acts that have become automatic responses to specific cues and are
functional in obtaining certain goals
146
Norms
knowledge-based beliefs shaped by social influence and triggered by social cues. There
is sort of: if, then rule that we all have in different situations.
147
Goal-dependent
automaticity
If habitual behaviors are well-learned (like driving and dancing). Starting this behavior
involves an intention, but once the process has been initiated, the rest follows
automatically. This kind of behavior is hard to change
148
Implementation intentions
are more specific goals than behavioral intentions, since these involve the ‘I intend to do
X in situation Y’ form?
149
Click-Whirr effect
There is this social influence technique and then there something clicks and mindlessly
you say yes to a request, or you are more likely to say yes. This goes through scripts and
heuristics. This is also the explanation for why it does not affect behavior on long term.
150
Social proof
Social proof means that people have a tendency to follow others, especially similar
others. This is the idea on the fact that there is information in other people. Why does
people have the tendency to follow others?
151
Need for approval
They want to be the similar others and want to belong to this group. You see the social
proof everywhere. Thousands of people like this post, so there must be some value in it,
I have to check it out.
152
Need for correct
information
Others can provide information that we don’t have, especially when we feel uncertain. If
you not sure what to do, you will look around and you will copy the behavior of other people. If you have a clear idea of what you are doing, this is less likely to occur.
153
Commitments
Commitment means that people like to be consistent. They want to be consistent to what
they are committed to. This is basically explained by the fact that people do not like to
be inconsistent. Inconsistency results in this uncomfortable feeling of dissonance and
this dissonance feels bad
154
Foot in the door
You first ask people two comply with a very small request. For instance, you ask them
to sign a petition. This temporarily changes your self view. Then you make a larger
request. For instance, make a donation. Because you are committed to the behavior
already, you already have yourself connected to this situation, you are more likely to say
yes on the second request.
155
Low balling
You first ask people with a small request. This changes the self-view and you mentally
own the decision. Then you change the conditions so that initial request become more
costly (higher price). Because you are already committed to the decision, then you see
yourself in the situation with that new product, you will be less likely to get out of it.
156
Social labeling
First assign a label to the person. Suppose you are a separating thrash. And you say to
someone, oh you are a sustainable person. Then this temporarily changes your self-view.
If you then ask somebody to do something inline with your sustainability goal. You are
more likely to say yes. You use the behavior of the person that he is already doing, but
you put a label on it. Then the second request has to be inline with that label People
are more likely to say yes
157
Reciprocation
Reciprocity is that people feel in debt when they get something from others, and they
want to return the favor. This is a strong one because people don’t want the feeling that
they own someone something
158
The door in the face
Big request first, which is declined. Because you come up with something smaller, it
feels like a concession. People are more likely to say yes to this concession. It is a social
thing because it is based on this feeling that you reciprocate something that another
person did for you, namely making the request smaller for you. “He is creating a smaller
option for me because then I can still be social”
159
That is not all technique
You have an offer and then you keep on adding more specificities that make the offer
more attractive. It feels that you have something extra
160
Free samples
You get a free sample of food at the train station. There are of course doing this with a
reason. They give you a gift and then the next question is do you want to become a
member. People will return a favor because they don’t want to own people something.
161
Liking
People are more likely to be persuaded by others they like. We like a lot actually. We
like similar others, familiar others, close others and attractive others
162
Authority
We tend to follow authority figures or experts. How do we explain these effects of
authority?
- Heuristics: experts are usually right. Because they organize society and they
have to know how things works
- Trust and credibility: People want to feel secure about their choices, preferring
people who are trustworthy and credible (expert reviews, titels (dr), clothing).
You can assign someone’s authority to the uniform he is wearing.
163
Scarcity
Scarcity means that opportunities seem to be more valuable to us when their availability
is limited.
- Scarcity heuristic: what is unique or scarce must be good.
- Gain/loss: we respond strongly for losses. So, if you are, for instance, explain
an acne medicine you are way more likely to go for it is 1/3 of the acne will be
gone after to weeks than say to 2/3 will remain after to weeks. So, you have to
focus on that gain frame
- Resisting limitations to freedom (reactance): people value their freedom and
when it is taken away, they strongly want to regain it.
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Explicit online advertising
You don’t spend a lot of time focusing on the adds. But even in the surroundings, it influences you.
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More subtle influence
If you place a text on your ad: hot price. You don’t have to scan the entire hotel list, they
do it for you and this can influence you. The recommendation may also end up in
reactance.
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Online word-of-mouth
(WOM)
Even if you don’t have big advertising, you can still find your way online through the
word of mouth. Reviews are typical WOM examples. In general, a negative WOM has
more influence than a positive WOM. This is explained by the negativity bias. Negative
events have a greater effect than positive things
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Scripts
predetermined, stereotyped sequences of action that define a well-known situation –
without paying attention to substantive information
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Least effort principle
suggests that people only behave in a mindless manner if there is no sufficient reason to
invest into mindful behavior. Besides scripts, people also use cognitive heuristics to
simplify complex decisions
169
Sufficiency principle
which refers to the tendency to strike a balance between minimizing cognitive effort and
satisfying motivational concerns. Script following and using heuristics are not
completely unconscious processes, because they require conscious processing and
awareness at some stage (conscious direction of the script to further cues and choosing
certain heuristics consciously to base the behavior on).
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Reference group
Refers to a person or group of people that significantly influences an individual’s
behavior. Communicates standards, norms, beliefs and values that are shared by others
and thus can serve as a benchmark. A distinction has been made between primary
groups and secondary groups
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Primary groups
Groups (e.g. friends and family) are more influential than secondary groups
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Secondary group
(e.g. trade unions) because they are small and enable face-to-face interaction. Marketers
also often distinguish between membership groups (the groups one currently belongs
to), aspirational groups (groups whose lifestyles, values, or norms one would like to
have), and negative reference groups (groups to which the target consumers would not
like to belong).
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Social validation
principle involves turning an eye to others to assess the merits of some object, issue or
offer. It is used to suggest that others like what is presented, which convinces the target
consumer that the offer can be trusted to be of value. This is very effective in ambiguous
and uncertain situations and with experience (can only be found out during
consumption) and credence attributes (difficult/impossible to ascertain, e.g. a
professional’s advice).
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The name-letter effect
This effect refers to the liking of and preference for products, streets, and career choice
that share the same letters as your own name. In commercials, you often see quite
‘general’ people who are easy to associate with, in order to increase liking. Also, simple
gestures like a gentle touch or remembering the customer’s name can increase liking.
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Demographic targeting
Here advertisers use basic demographic data – gender, age group, socio-economic
status, lifestyles, values and product and brand use – of websites to tailor the ads so that
they are maximally congruent to the target group that visits the website (most basic
form).
176
Contextual targeting
Here advertisers try to match their ad with the content of the host website.
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Behavioral targeting
Here advertisers actively use the log data of individual consumers to base their message
on past Internet behaviour by the consumer (most sophisticated form).
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Online trust
Online trust is the key person variable that directly affects the extent to which someone
can be persuaded online to engage in online purchase
