Chapter 5

Question 1

Persuasion

Answer 1

Any change in beliefs and attitudes that results form exposure to a
communication.

Question 2

The Yale Reinforcement Approach

Answer 2

 Hovland founded the Yale Communication and Attitude Change Program after WWII

 Yale Reinforcement Approach: Exposure to a persuasive communication that
successfully induces the individual to accept a new opinion constitutes a learning
experience in which a new verbal habit is acquired.
o Recipients of a persuasive message would silently rehearse the arguments
together with the recommended response and their own initial attitude
o They will only accept the recommended attitudinal response if the incentives
associated with this response are greater than those associated with their own
original position

 Communication and Persuasion
o In order to understand persuasion, one must know “who says what to whom
with what effect”
o Innovative experimental research on the impact of communicator credibility,
on features of the communication such as fear-arousing appeals or the
organization of persuasive arguments, on individual differences in
susceptibility to persuasion and on the extent to which attitude change was
maintained over time
o The impact of any of these factors on attitudes could be mediated by three
different processes:
1. Attention to the content of the communication
2. Comprehension of the message
3. Acceptance of the conclusion advocated by the communication

 Source effects: The impact of the source of a communication on persuasion.
o Attribution of a communication to either a prestigious or a non-prestigious
source influenced the target’s evaluation of the communication

 Fear-arousing communication
o The weakest appeal was most effective in changing attitudes and behavior
o Defensive avoidance: The strong fear appeal was so threatening that it was
more effective for recipients to reduce fear by rejecting the appeal as alarmist
rather than accepting the recommendation.
o Findings have rarely been replicated in later research; actually, reverse effect
has been found

Question 3

Hovland

Answer 3

founded the Yale Communication and Attitude Change Program after WWII

Question 4

Yale Reinforcement Approach

Answer 4

Exposure to a persuasive communication that
successfully induces the individual to accept a new opinion constitutes a learning
experience in which a new verbal habit is acquired.

Question 5

Source effects:

Answer 5

The impact of the source of a communication on persuasion.

o Attribution of a communication to either a prestigious or a non-prestigious
source influenced the target’s evaluation of the communication

Question 6

Defensive avoidance:

Answer 6

The strong fear appeal was so threatening that it was
more effective for recipients to reduce fear by rejecting the appeal as alarmist
rather than accepting the recommendation

Question 7

The information processing model of McGuire

Answer 7

 Information processing model: (1) There are different stages involved in the processing
of persuasive communications and (2) determinants of persuasion could have different
impacts at different stages

 Five stages of persuasion:
1. Attention
2. Comprehension
3. Acceptance
4. Retention
5. Behavior
 The receiver must go through each of these steps if the communication is to have an
ultimate persuasive impact, and each depends on the occurrence of the preceding
step
 One has to question whether recipients really have to go through these steps for the
advertisement to be effective
o There are a variety of ways by which messages can influence, even without
having been carefully processed
o Processing motivation is likely to be higher for more complex and expensive
products
 The probability of a communication influencing attitudes [P(I)] is the joint product of
the probability of reception [P(R)] and acceptance [P(A)]
o P(I) = P(R) × P(A)

 McGuire stated that most personality characteristics have opposing effects on
reception and acceptance
o People are more likely to understand a message the more intelligent they are
o More intelligent people are also likely to be more critical and therefore less
likely to accept everything they hear or read

 Curvilinear relationship of reception and acceptance, with the maximum level of
influenceability found at some intermediate level for the personality characteristic

 A meta-analysis of studies of individual differences in influenceability provided limited
support for the McGuire model

Question 8

Information processing model:

Answer 8

1) There are different stages involved in the processing
of persuasive communications and (2) determinants of persuasion could have different
impacts at different stages.

Question 9

McGuire’s Five stages of persuasion

Answer 9

1. Attention
2. Comprehension
3. Acceptance
4. Retention
5. Behavior

Question 10

McGuire stated that..

Answer 10

most personality characteristics have opposing effects on
reception and acceptance

o People are more likely to understand a message the more intelligent they are
o More intelligent people are also likely to be more critical and therefore less
likely to accept everything they hear or read

Question 11

The cognitive response model

Answer 11

 The cognitive response model was developed by Greenwald, Petty, and their
colleagues partly to explain the frequent failure to find a correlation between
argument recall and attitude change, despite evidence that recipients had
systematically processed the message arguments

 The model stresses the importance of the thoughts individuals generate – and thus
rehearse and learn – in response to a persuasive communication

 Listeners are active participants who relate the communication to their own
knowledge
o Generating thoughts for and against the arguments presented
o The cognitive response to the message arguments produced by the recipient,
rather than the message arguments themselves, determine the impact of the
persuasive communication on attitudes

 Thought-listing technique: Subjects are asked to list all the thoughts or ideas they had
while listening to the communication. After elimination of thoughts that are irrelevant
to the communication, the relevant thoughts are then categorized by participants or
external raters into those that are favorable to the position advocated by the message
and those that are generally unfavorable. An index based on these thoughts can then
be used to assess the extent to which cognitive responses mediated the impact of a
communication on attitudes.

 With strong and well-reasoned arguments, thinking about them might in fact reduce
our reluctance to change our minds

 Although cognitive responses to weak arguments would reduce persuasion, thinking
about strong and well-reasoned arguments would produce favorable thoughts that
would enhance persuasion

 Since recipients process messages more or less intensively, persuasion should depend
on both:
o The extent to which recipients engage in message-relevant thoughts
o The favorability of these thoughts

 Distraction
o Until it begins to interfere with reception, distraction should enhance
persuasion by impairing a recipient’s ability to counterargue
o The persuasion-reducing effect of distraction was not necessarily due to
impairment of comprehension but due to impairment of the ability of
recipients of a well-argued communication to produce positive thoughts that
might have persuaded them to change their attitudes
o Increased distraction increased attitude-change for weakly argued messages,
but decreased change for strongly argued message

Question 12

Thought-listing technique

Answer 12

Subjects are asked to list all the thoughts or ideas they had
while listening to the communication. After elimination of thoughts that are irrelevant
to the communication, the relevant thoughts are then categorized by participants or
external raters into those that are favorable to the position advocated by the message
and those that are generally unfavorable. An index based on these thoughts can then
be used to assess the extent to which cognitive responses mediated the impact of a
communication on attitudes.

Question 13

Since recipients process messages more or less intensively, persuasion should depend
on both:

Answer 13

o The extent to which recipients engage in message-relevant thoughts

o The favorability of these thoughts

Question 14

Dual process theories of persuasion

Answer 14

 Dual process theories of persuasion
o They acknowledge that recipients may sometimes take shortcuts and accept or
reject the position recommended by the communicator without thinking about
message arguments
o They specify the factors that determine the intensity of message processing,
and thus the conditions under which attitude change will be mediated by
message-relevant thinking

 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

 Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM)

 Two routes to persuasion:
1. Systematic processing: Recipients carefully and thoughtfully consider the
arguments presented in support of a position.
2. Heuristic processing: The use of simple decision rules in deciding on whether to
accept or reject a persuasive communication.

 Two types of qualitatively different information that message recipients use when
trying to decide whether to accept or reject the position advocated by a
communicator:
1. Arguments contained in the information
2. Heuristic cues

 Message arguments offer better and more reliable evidence for the validity of a
position advocated by a communicator than heuristic cues, but heuristic cues are
easier to process

 Processing motivation is important because unless an issue is relevant to participants,
they will not expend much effort in thinking about arguments for or against the issue

 Processing ability is important because in order to judge the validity of the arguments
contained in a communication, a person needs knowledge, time, and peace of mind

 It was originally assumed that the two processing modes are compensatory; more
recently, it has been suggested that the two modes of processing can co-occur, if
systematic processing of arguments does not allow one to arrive at a clear-cut
conclusion

 Variables can affect persuasion in multiple ways, depending on the extent to which a
message is processed systematically

 Multiple-role assumption: Depending on the level of processing motivation, the
attributes of an endorser of a product can be used as a heuristic cue to influence
attitude towards a product, but they can also serve as an argument.

 The extended dual process framework incorporates two further processing motives or
goals:
1. Defense motive
-Need for positive self-regard
- Vested interests
- Attitudinal commitment
- Need for consistency

2. Impression motive
   - Desire to express attitudes that are socially acceptable
   -Assessing the social acceptability of alternative positions in order to
   accept attitudinal positions that will please or appease potential
   evaluators

Defense-motivated as well as impression-motivated processing can be heuristic as
well as systematic

Question 15

Assessing the intensity of processing

Answer 15

 Two strategies for assessing processing intensity:
1. Thought-listing
2. Manipulation of argument quality

 If attitude change is due to systematic processing, then (thought-listing):
o Recipients should have generated some thoughts favorable to the position
advocated by the communicator
o The relative favorability or unfavourability of these thoughts should be
correlated with the amount of attitude change
o A favorability index (the ratio of favorable thoughts to total number of relevant
thoughts) should act as a mediator of the impact of the manipulated variables
on attitude change with systematic but not under heuristic processing

 Manipulation of argument quality
o Persuasive appeals containing strong arguments should stimulate mainly
favorable thoughts in recipients who engage in systematic processing, and
result in substantial attitude change
o Weak arguments should trigger mainly negative thoughts and fail to result in
attitude change or even result in negative change (i.e. boomerang effect)

 Boomerang effects have never been observed empirically

Question 16

Two strategies for assessing processing intensity:

Answer 16

1. Thought-listing
2. Manipulation of argument quality

Question 17

If attitude change is due to systematic processing, then (thought-listing):

Answer 17

o Recipients should have generated some thoughts favorable to the position
advocated by the communicator

o The relative favorability or unfavourability of these thoughts should be
correlated with the amount of attitude change

o A favorability index (the ratio of favorable thoughts to total number of relevant
thoughts) should act as a mediator of the impact of the manipulated variables
on attitude change with systematic but not under heuristic processing

Question 18

A favorability index

Answer 18

the ratio of favorable thoughts to total number of relevant
thoughts

Question 19

Processing ability is important for

Answer 19

the comprehension of the arguments presented by
salespersons

o Intelligence and education are of limited use in such situations

Question 20

The impact of working knowledge on processing ability

Answer 20

 The amount of working knowledge the individual possesses in a given area is the most
important personal factor influencing processing ability

 Your knowledge about a certain area, at least if it is cognitively accessible, provides a
standard that allows you to detect the strengths and weaknesses of the information
provided

 Overall, more knowledgeable participants were less influenced by the
communications than participants with little knowledge
o Argument strength influenced only the most knowledgeable individuals
o Message length affected only the least knowledgeable

 Longer message = seen as more valid
o The more knowledgeable participants listed significantly more content-
oriented thoughts than the least knowledgeable individuals

 Study with stereo system produced in Germany vs. Thailand
o Experts were only influenced by argument strength
o Novices were only influenced by country of origin

 If arguments do not allow one to draw clear-cut conclusions, individuals will rely on
heuristic cues even under high processing intensity

Question 21

The impact of distraction of processing ability

Answer 21

Distraction will reduce attitude change when arguments are strong, but increase it
with weak arguments

Question 22

The impact of message repetition on processing ability

Answer 22

 Whereas argument recall increased monotonically with frequency of exposure,
attitude change showed a curvilinear relationship with frequency of exposure
o Change increased between zero and three exposures, but decreased
afterwards
o Up to three exposures, message repetition increased the number of favorable
thoughts and decreased the number of counterarguments; however, further
repetition reversed this effect

 Initially, repetition of arguments provided recipients with opportunity to think about
and elaborate the message

 However, when message repetition was further increased, boredom motivated people
to attack the now tedious argumentation

 Whereas exposure to strong arguments resulted in an increase in change from one to
three repetitions, repeated exposure to weak arguments led to immediate decrease in
change
o Lowering of processing motivation

 Marketers try to avoid or at least delay tedium by varying their advertisements
o Cosmetic – changing substantive features of an advertisement that are not
essential in evaluating the product
o Substantive – change in message content

 Once processing intensity increases, cosmetic variation will be ineffective and only
substantive variation will reduce tedium

 Cosmetic variation reduced the impact of tedium slightly under low, but not high
product relevance

 People often look at ads without really processing any of the text message
o With deep processing, attitude change followed the familiar curvilinear
pattern, even thought the downturn only occurred at ten exposures
o No downturn with shallow processing
o Whereas the attitude change pattern is correlated with the net number of
favorable thoughts produced by participants under deep processing, no
systematic relationship between thoughts and attitudes emerged under
shallow processing
o Frequency of exposure is likely to have increased perceptual fluency that, in
turn, resulted in greater liking for these advertisements

Question 23

Personal relevance as motivator

Answer 23

 Personal relevance: The importance of an outcome for the individual.

 Major variable affecting processing motivation

 Need to make a purchase decision

 Consumers make many purchase decisions every day and these decisions vary on a
continuum of effort and time investment:
o Low effort – repetitive, routine, or habitual choices
- Low personal relevance
- Low risk
o High effort – infrequently bought and expensive goods
- High personal relevance
- Great deal of risk

 The need to choose a particular brand of such a high involvement product from the
multitude of brands on offer will act as a powerful motivator to critically read
advertisements and test reports

 For unimportant decisions people are likely to rely on heuristic cues

 In line with predictions, personal relevance interacted with both celebrity status of the
endorser and argument quality, with celebrity status influencing attitudes mainly
under low involvement conditioning and argument quality being mainly effective
under high involvement conditions

 Physical attractiveness, while serving as a heuristic cue under low involvement, might
have functioned as a visual evidence for the effectiveness of the product (i.e. an
argument) under high involvement
o Source congruity: The match between cognitively accessible endorser attributes
and attributes associated with the brand.
o Source congruity does not only apply to physical attractiveness, but also to
other attributes of a source

Question 24

Source congruity

Answer 24

The match between cognitively accessible endorser attributes
and attributes associated with the brand.

Question 25

Fear as motivator

Answer 25

 Fear-arousing communications are widely used in health education campaigns, but are less common in the advertising of consumer products  Fear-arousing communication mostly consists of two parts: 1. A fear-appeal warning individuals of some health threat 2. An action recommendation that advises individuals about how to protect themselves against this threat  Research on fear-arousing communication has initially been guided by the drive- reduction model of fear appeals, which assumes that individuals who are informed of an impending health threat will be motivated to search for responses that reduce the threat o Higher fear should result in more persuasion, but only if the recommended action is perceived as effective in averting danger o Inconsistent empirical evidence  According to the parallel response model, a threat is cognitively evaluated and this appraisal can give rise to two parallel or independent responses, namely danger control and fear control o Danger control: The decision to act as well as actions taken to reduce the ganger. o Fear control: Actions taken to control emotional responses as well as strategies to reduce fear.  Problems: o There is no empirical evidence for the predicted interaction between threat and response efficacy o Even though the two parallel response models assume that cognitive appraisal mediates the impact of persuasion on attitude and behavior change, they make no predictions about these processes of information processing  According to the stage model of processing of fear-arousing communications, the important determinants of the intensity of processing are the perceived severity of a health threat and personal vulnerability o If both severity and vulnerability are low, individuals are unlikely to invest much effort into processing information about this treat will rely on heuristic processing o When both are high, individuals will be motivated to engage in systematic processing that is defensive  Highly motivated to minimize the risk  Biased search for inconsistencies; assessing evidence with a bias in the direction of their preferred conclusion o Defense motivation will lead to a positive bias in the processing of the action recommendation and will heighten the motivation to engage in the protective action regardless of the quality of the arguments supporting this action  Adding pictures to the health warning is unlikely to increase the efficacy of these messages  Feeling vulnerable to a severe health threat triggered thoughts attempting to minimize the threat and at the same time stimulating positive thoughts about the value of the action recommendation

Question 26

Danger control

Answer 26

The decision to act as well as actions taken to reduce the ganger.

Question 27

Fear control

Answer 27

Actions taken to control emotional responses as well as strategies to reduce fear

Question 28

Individual differences in processing motivation

Answer 28

 The extent to which individuals think about message arguments is not only influenced by situational factors, but also by individual differences  Individuals vary in the extent to which they engage and enjoy effortful cognitive activity that is in their need for cognition o Argument quality has a greater impact on attitudes of individuals who are high in need for cognition  Need for cognitive closure: The desire for a definite answer on some topic, any answer as opposed to confusion and ambiguity. o Time pressure o People with a chronically high need for closure behave as if they were always in a rush - Relying more on heuristic cues

Question 29

Processing intensity and stability of change

Answer 29

 Attitude change induced by systematic processing is more persistent than change induced by heuristic processing  Attitudes of high need for cognition individuals were more persistent than those of low need for cognition participants  The more elaborated attitudes of high need for cognition individuals were also more resistant to a message attacking the attitude  Substantive variation in ad repetition does not only help to avoid tedium, but it also increases the resistance of individuals against the negative impact of counterarguments

Question 30

Persuasion by a single route: the unimodel

Answer 30

 Unimodel: Arguments and heuristic cues are functionally equivalent in constituting two separate content categories of evidence for drawing conclusions from persuasive communications. o Persuasion can be characterized as a singular process of drawing conclusions from available evidence o It does not matter whether evidence is contained in an argument or comes from a heuristic cue  The unimodel shares with dual processing theory the assumption that depth of processing will depend on processing motivation o Because heuristic cues are typically more easily processed than message arguments, and therefore will be preferred information of individuals who are not terribly motivated to think about a communication  The unimodel rejects the notion that heuristic cues are typically less valid than message arguments  The information about heuristic cues is typically presented before the message arguments in practically all studies  The relevance of the information contained in a message argument or a heuristic cue for the evaluation of the position advocated in a communication will always depend on the belief systems of the members of the target audience

Question 31

Unimodel:

Answer 31

Arguments and heuristic cues are functionally equivalent in constituting two separate content categories of evidence for drawing conclusions from persuasive communications. o Persuasion can be characterized as a singular process of drawing conclusions from available evidence o It does not matter whether evidence is contained in an argument or comes from a heuristic cue

Question 32

Strategies to attract attention and to lower resistance to advertising

Answer 32

 Consumers often try to avoid exposure to advertising  Consumers’ awareness of persuasive intent might increase their resistance to persuasion and decrease the impact of the message  Persuasion knowledge: The theories consumers have developed about the motives, strategies, and tactics of marketers as well as their beliefs in their ability to resist these tactics.  There is evidence that the perception of a communicators’ intention to persuade increases resistance in recipients of a message  The expectation of being exposed to counterattitudinal arguments will motivate recipients to access the reasons that support their own position o They will use these reasons to generate arguments to refute the persuasive communication o Recipients have to be motivated, and have time, to generate counterarguments  Merely warning recipients about persuasive intent without providing information about the direction of the arguments contained in a communication induces resistance even without a delay period, suggesting that the impact of these warnings is not mediated by counterargumentation o Psychological reactance: A motivational state that can be triggered by the perceived threat to one’s attitudinal freedom implied by a social influence attempt and motivates individuals to re-establish their freedom.  Biased processing of the communication  Disregarding the message as invalid  Sleeper effect: The phenomenon that the impact of a message increases over time, because after some delay recipients of an otherwise influential message might recall the message but no longer remember the source. o The conditions under which sleeper effects occur are rarely realized in advertising contexts  Message arguments need to have strong initial impact strategies: -humour -sex -two-sided ads -product placement -sponsorship

Question 33

Persuasion knowledge:

Answer 33

The theories consumers have developed about the motives, strategies, and tactics of marketers as well as their beliefs in their ability to resist these tactics.

Question 34

Psychological reactance:

Answer 34

A motivational state that can be triggered by the perceived threat to one’s attitudinal freedom implied by a social influence attempt and motivates individuals to re-establish their freedom.  Biased processing of the communication  Disregarding the message as invalid

Question 35

Sleeper effect:

Answer 35

The phenomenon that the impact of a message increases over time, because after some delay recipients of an otherwise influential message might recall the message but no longer remember the source. o The conditions under which sleeper effects occur are rarely realized in advertising contexts - Message arguments need to have strong initial impact

Question 36

Humor in advertising

Answer 36

 Counters the tendency of consumers to try avoiding exposure to advertisement, by making it so funny that people enjoy looking at it  Humorous advertisements are liked more than advertisements without humor  Positive effect on attitudes towards the advertised brand  Positive impact on purchase intention Humor, distraction, and memory  Humor in advertisement distracts consumers → lack of impact on behavior  Humor will lead to better memory for the humor-related part of advertisements that attracted the attention, but to less recall for the parts that are unrelated to the humor  Humorous advertisements impair mainly explicit memory, but do not affect implicit memory Humor and liking for the ad and the brand  People love funny advertisement; it makes them feel good about the advertisement and this humor increases (explicit) liking for the advertisement and for the brand  Recognition for the product paired with humorous cartoons was significantly poorer than recognition for the product paired with cartoons that were not humorous  Evidence for evaluative conditioning effect when the product was not recognized, that is, when there was no explicit memory for the brand Humorous advertisements and brand choice  The fact that the positive feelings created by humorous advertisements become attached to the advertised brand through evaluative conditioning raises the possibility that humor in advertising might influence purchasing behavior under certain limited conditions, namely when the purchase is made without much deliberation  Low-cost items or impulsive purchase decision Limitations  Most of the research on the effect of humor in advertising has used humor that was unrelated to the advertising message  Measuring the impact of humor on implicit, but not explicit attitudes in some studies  Studies of humor have nearly exclusively used brands that were unfamiliar to participants o With regard to distraction, one would assume that explicit brand memory should be less impaired for brand names that are familiar rather than unfamiliar o Humorous advertisements can affect product choice even for familiar brands, but only for consumers who: - Have no strong preference for either brand - Are unable or unmotivated to think much about their choice - Practically all of the studies examined the effects of humor in the advertising of low- cost items o Low motivation of thinking about purchase o Humor is most often used in the advertising of low-cost hedonic goods Summary and conclusion Humorous advertisements have three effects: 1. They attract attention to an advertisement 2. They distract from the part of the message that is unrelated to the humor 3. Humor elicits positive affect, which becomes associated with the brand through evaluative conditioning

Question 37

Humorous advertisements can affect product choice even for familiar brands, but only for consumers who:

Answer 37

 Have no strong preference for either brand  Are unable or unmotivated to think much about their choice

Question 38

Humorous advertisements have three effects:

Answer 38

1. They attract attention to an advertisement 2. They distract from the part of the message that is unrelated to the humor 3. Humor elicits positive affect, which becomes associated with the brand through evaluative conditioning

Question 39

Sex in advertising

Answer 39

 Two important factors in “sex sells”: o Relevance o Function  Sex in advertising: Mediated messages that contain sexual imagery with the persuasive purpose of selling branded goods. o Extent to which models are undressed o Type of physical contact between models  Effect of sexual imagery in attracting attention The impact of sexual advertisements on information processing  Sexual imagery distracts from processing the message content  Sexual imagery has a positive effect on attitudes towards the ad as well as on purchasing intention  Brand name recall is typically worse when the sexual content of an ad is unrelated to a product than when it is related  Names might be remembered better when sexual images are combined with a relevant product, especially if the brand names are of well-known products The impact of sexual advertising on attitudes  Two pathways by which sexual imagery can influence attitudes towards the advertised product, namely through sexual images serving as: o Persuasive arguments o Evaluative conditioning  The persuasive argument effects should only work if the sexual imagery is functional or relevant for the advertised product and if the product serves self-expression or identity-related functions  Whereas imagery that is mildly sexual typically elicits positive affect, gratuitous (unnecessarily explicit and irrelevant) sexual imagery can elicit negative affect  Individuals who hold liberal attitudes towards sex are likely to react less negatively to sexual imagery that individuals with more conservative attitudes might find gratuitous  Gender differences in attitudes toward sexual advertisement  In contrast to women, whose negative reactions to gratuitous female sex are automatic, the spontaneous response of men would be positive; however, their initial positive response tendency would then be moderated by the cognition that this gratuitous display of sexual imagery is unfair and unethical o Under cognitive load, men responded more positively to sexual than non- sexual advertisement, whereas women rated the non-sexual ad more positively o Without cognitive load, male respondents rated the sexual advertisements as negatively as female respondents o The negative effect of the sexual appeal on women was dependent on their attitude towards sex and limited to women who held a conservative attitude; women with liberal attitudes actually preferred the sexual advertisement  The value of the advertised product might also act as a moderator  One problem is that most of the studies have been conducted with students as respondents  Historical changes in sexual attitude; comparison of findings of studies conducted during different decades becomes problematic  None of the studies assessed actual behavior

Question 40

Two pathways by which sexual imagery can influence attitudes towards the advertised product, namely through sexual images serving as:

Answer 40

o Persuasive arguments o Evaluative conditioning

Question 41

Two-sided advertisements

Answer 41

 Used to reduce the resistance to persuasion  Two-sided advertisements mention some negative features of a product in addition to emphasizing its positive attributes o Standing out from the advertisement clutter o Appearing as more honest and therefore might have more impact  Reduce counterarguing  Viewed as more credible  More effective in enhancing perception of the advertised brand on those characteristics that are described as positive  The positive effect of two-sided advertisements does not always translate into a superiority in influencing overall brand evaluation or purchasing intention  Two-sided advertisements that include a refutation of the negative information may be more resistant to counterattack or disconfirming information  Conditions under which two-sided advertisements might result in more positive overall brand evaluations: o Optimal proportion of negative information  Credibility gains at optimal level o The negative information should not exceed two-fifths of the information contained in an advertisement o Including negative information on important product attributes should be avoided  The optimal procedure would be to mention only negative attributes that are trivial or of which the consumer is already aware o Needs to be used with care

Question 42

Conditions under which two-sided advertisements might result in more positive overall brand evaluations:

Answer 42

o Optimal proportion of negative information  Credibility gains at optimal level o The negative information should not exceed two-fifths of the information contained in an advertisement o Including negative information on important product attributes should be avoided

Question 43

Product placement

Answer 43

 Product placement: The paid inclusion of braded products or brand identifiers through audio and/or visual means within mass media programming.  Avoids the problem of channel switching  Two dimensions: o Modality – is brand name only seen or also mentioned? o Centrality – relevance of the product use to the plot  Background  Product used by main character but no relevance to story  Product plays a role in the story  The most frequently used measures of the efficacy of product placement have been measures of explicit memory such as recall and recognition measures; recently, measures of implicit memory have also been employed  Plot centrality influences explicit memory  Product placement can backfire o Brand use by disliked characters results in a negative brand attitude  Heider’s balance theory is concerned with the relations a person perceives between themselves, other individuals, and objects o The perception of such relations will tend towards a balance state o A state is balanced if one likes objects owned by a person one likes, or dislikes objects owned by a person one dislikes  Viewers who like a program and regularly view it might also be irritated by blatant product placement

Question 44

Two dimensions of product placement:

Answer 44

o Modality – is brand name only seen or also mentioned? o Centrality – relevance of the product use to the plot - Background - Product used by main character but no relevance to story - Product plays a role in the story

Question 45

Heider’s balance theory is concerned with

Answer 45

the relations a person perceives between themselves, other individuals, and objects o The perception of such relations will tend towards a balance state o A state is balanced if one likes objects owned by a person one likes, or dislikes objects owned by a person one dislikes

Question 46

Product placement:

Answer 46

The paid inclusion of braded products or brand identifiers through audio and/or visual means within mass media programming

Question 47

Sponsorship:

Answer 47

 Commercial sponsorship has become a multi-billion-dollar business  Sponsorship: A technique by which a commercial organization financially supports an entity in order to associate the organization’s name with this entity in the media and to use the entity for advertising purposes.  Different types of sponsorship: o Program sponsorship o Event sponsorship  There are various ways in which event sponsorship could influence brand awareness and brand attitude o Display and association of brand logo at/with the event  Increased hedonic fluency o Linking the name of the sponsor to the event  Congruent sponsorships are better remembered than incongruent sponsorships o If there is no link between the brand and event, they can be created  Whether a sponsor brand will profit from linking itself to some event will not only depend on people’s attitude towards the event but also on their thoughts about the sponsor’s motive in supporting the event

Question 48

Sponsorship

Answer 48

A technique by which a commercial organization financially supports an entity in order to associate the organization’s name with this entity in the media and to use the entity for advertising purposes

Question 49

Different types of sponsorship:

Answer 49

o Program sponsorship o Event sponsorship