Chapter 6

Question 1

The attitude-behavior relationship: a brief history

Answer 1

 There was a general agreement among early social psychologists that human behavior
was guided by social attitudes

 By the late 1960s, at least 45 studies had been reported, many of them laboratory
experiments in which researchers had found virtually no relationship between
measures of verbal attitudes and observations of actual behavior deemed to be
relevant to these attitudes
o Many of these studies tried to relate attitudes of white Americans towards
African Americans to some specific behavior towards and African American
individual, who was usually a confederate of the experimenter

 Ajzen and Fishbein proposed that the important question was not whether attitudes
were related to behavior, but when they were related
o Principle of compatibility: Measures of attitudes will only be related to
measures of behavior if both constructs are assessed at the same level of
generality.

 Works both ways; if we are interested in predicting specific behavior,
attitude measures would be compatible if they assessed the attitude
towards performing the specific behavior
o Since attitudes towards a racial group only specify the target, one cannot
expect any single behavior to be related to this attitude

 There is evidence that aggregate behavior indices correlate highly with global
measures of attitudes
o E.g. attitude toward health maintenance is unrelated to most individual
behaviors, but highly related to an aggregate measure across all health
behaviors

Question 2

Ajzen and Fishbein proposed that

Answer 2

the important question was not whether attitudes
were related to behavior, but when they were related

o Principle of compatibility: Measures of attitudes will only be related to
measures of behavior if both constructs are assessed at the same level of
generality.
- Works both ways; if we are interested in predicting specific behavior,
attitude measures would be compatible if they assessed the attitude
towards performing the specific behavior

o Since attitudes towards a racial group only specify the target, one cannot
expect any single behavior to be related to this attitude

Question 3

Principle of compatibility

Answer 3

Measures of attitudes will only be related to
measures of behavior if both constructs are assessed at the same level of
generality.

 Works both ways; if we are interested in predicting specific behavior,
attitude measures would be compatible if they assessed the attitude
towards performing the specific behavior

Question 4

The standard model

Answer 4

 The theory of reasoned action and the extension of that theory, the theory of planned
behavior (TPB) both predict behavioral intentions and assume that the impact of
attitudes and other components on behavior is mediated by the intention to perform
that behavior

 The intention to perform a specific behavior is determined by a person’s attitude
towards that behavior and by subjective norms (normative beliefs and motivation to
comply)

 Usually a given attitude is determined by a very limited number of salient beliefs

 Sheppard, Hartwick, and Warshaw argued that the theory of reasoned action primarily
applies to behaviors and not goals that result from that behavior, because the
achievement of goals usually depends on other factors in addition to the individual’s
behavior
o Availability of resources
o Willingness of other people to cooperate

 Perceived behavioral control: The fact that people often fail to act on their intentions
because they lack the ability, resources, or willpower to do so.
o Some behaviors are more controllable than others
o Perceived behavioral control affects behavior indirectly through intentions, but
can also have a direct link to behavior that is not mediated by intentions

 It depends on the accuracy of the individual’s perception of behavioral
control

Question 5

subjective norms

Answer 5

normative beliefs and motivation to
comply

Question 6

Sheppard, Hartwick, and Warshaw argued that

Answer 6

the theory of reasoned action primarily
applies to behaviors and not goals that result from that behavior, because the
achievement of goals usually depends on other factors in addition to the individual’s
behavior
o Availability of resources
o Willingness of other people to cooperate

Question 7

Perceived behavioral control:

Answer 7

The fact that people often fail to act on their intentions
because they lack the ability, resources, or willpower to do so.

o Some behaviors are more controllable than others

o Perceived behavioral control affects behavior indirectly through intentions, but
can also have a direct link to behavior that is not mediated by intentions
- It depends on the accuracy of the individual’s perception of behavioral
control

Question 8

Extending the standard model

Answer 8

 It is possible to improve predictions through the inclusion of specific determinants of
intentions that are likely to influence behavior in specific domains
o Identity-related function of a particular behavior

 Adding a measure of identity similarity to the assessment of standard TPB variables
improved predictions of intentions

 Identity similarity should influence buying behavior mainly for products that can serve
identity-related goals of consumers, but not for products serving purely utilitarian
functions

Question 9

Narrowing the intention-behavior gap: forming implementation intentions

Answer 9

 Implementation intentions are more specific goals than behavioral intentions

 One reason why people fail to act on their intentions is because they simply “forget”
to act when the opportunity arises

 By specifying the time and situational context in which behavior should be performed,
the mental representation of the specified situational context cues becomes activated
and highly accessible, making sure that people remember their intention hen they
encounter the situation in which they planned to act

 The formation of an implementation intention will create the association between the
situational cues and the response that is instrumental for obtaining the goal

 In contrast to approach goals, where individuals at risk of failing to perform an
intended action have to be reminded to get going, with avoidance goals people have
to be reminded to suppress an unwanted response

 Strategies for implementation intentions:
1. Identify situations in which the risk of yielding to the targeted temptation is
particularly high
2. Think of a coping response that is likely to be effective in helping them resist
3. Cognitively rehearse linking the coping response to the situation

Question 10

Strategies for implementation intentions:

Answer 10

1. Identify situations in which the risk of yielding to the targeted temptation is
   particularly high
2. Think of a coping response that is likely to be effective in helping them resist
3. Cognitively rehearse linking the coping response to the situation

Question 11

Automatic processes:

Answer 11

Processes that occur without intention, effort, or awareness and
do not interfere with other concurrent cognitive processes

Question 12

Automatic and deliberate influence of attitudes

Answer 12

 One would expect implicit measures of attitudes to predict behavior better than
explicit measures when individuals are either not motivated or unable to exert control

 Explicit measures of attitudes should do better when individuals are able and
motivated to exert control over their behavior

 Nonverbal behaviors displayed while interacting with a black or white interviewer
correlated with implicit but not explicit measures of prejudice

 Domains where implicit attitude measures diverge from explicit measures:
o Prejudice
o Dieting
o Choice between generic and branded products

 It makes sense from the perspective of stimulating sales to display chocolates and
other tempting goods at locations where people have little time or cognitive resources
to control their choice

 If supermarkets want to sell their own brands rather than products from well-known
brands, they should display them as far as possible from the exit, in areas where
people are still leisurely shopping rather than being on the way to the exist
o Displaying their brands easily visible on the shelf directly below (or above) the
competing product line with the prices of both sets of products shown clearly
o Packaging of their own brands should look as similar as the law allows to that
of the well-known brand

Question 13

Domains where implicit attitude measures diverge from explicit measures:

Answer 13

o Prejudice
o Dieting
o Choice between generic and branded products

Question 14

Automatic and deliberate influence of social norms

Answer 14

 Norms: Knowledge-based beliefs shaped by social influence and triggered by
situational cues.
o If-then rules

 Many norms are tied to physical environments
o Environments only trigger norm-related behavior if they are of behavioral
relevance to the individual

 Although advertisements also frequently appeal to norms, these appeals are typically
quite explicit

 More subtle norm primes are used in shopping environments

Question 15

Norms:

Answer 15

Knowledge-based beliefs shaped by social influence and triggered by
situational cues.
o If-then rules

Question 16

Automatic and deliberate influence of goals

Answer 16

 There is increasing evidence that goal-directed behavior can be triggered by
environmental cues without an intention having been formed

 Goals: Actions or outcomes towards which individuals hold positive attitudes.

 For a goal to motivate goal striving, there must be a discrepancy between the actual
state of the individual and the desired state, and the goal must seem attainable

 The main difference is that theories of unconscious goal pursuit make the assumption
that goals can be unconsciously activated and pursued, without the individual having
formed a conscious intention
o Goals pre-exist in the actor’s mind and form part of a knowledge structure that
includes the goal itself, the context in which the goal can be enacted
(opportunity) and the actions that need to be performed to reach the goal

 Priming can activate goals without individuals being consciously aware of either the
prime or the goal
o Can also influence goal enactment

 Because brand images are the beliefs people hold about the attributes of a particular
branded product, it is possible to use brand images to prime specific goals

 Brands are associated with characteristics that relate to the expected qualities of a
product, and with personality characteristics (“brand personality”)

 The problem with most of the consumer research on goal priming is that it is unclear
whether the priming effects were driven by goal-based or cognition-based processes
o Incorporating a delay condition; whereas memory effects fade over time, the
motivational impact of unfulfilled goals increases over time

 The prime effects on product choice increased rather than decreased over time and
reaching the goal diminished the effects of goal primes, but only when actual rather
than hypothetical product choices were involved

 Marketers often make use of goal priming techniques in designing advertisements or
commercials

 Priming a goal before delivering a message increases the impact of relevant messages

Question 17

Goals:

Answer 17

Actions or outcomes towards which individuals hold positive attitudes.

Question 18

Goals, habits, and behavior

Answer 18

 People usually have a choice from a multitude of means to reach a particular goal
o Challenge to cognitive resources

 For goals to be implemented automatically, the selection of the relevant means to
reach the goal needs to be routinized

 Habits: Learned sequences of acts that have become automatic responses to specific
cues and are functional in obtaining certain goals or end states.

 Behavior becomes habituation if it is performed frequently, regularly, and under
environmental conditions that are stable

 In the case of well-learned behaviors, one speaks of goal-dependent automaticity,
because starting out the behavior involves an intention, but once the process has
been triggered it runs off automatically
o Allows us to use our (limited) cognitive resources for other purposes

 The great disadvantage of the automaticity of habitual behavior is that it is difficult to
change, even if we have formed the intention to do so
o “Brand switching” has no successful marketing techniques so far
 Behavior we perform regularly and under stable environmental conditions is probably
better predicted by our past behavior rather than by our intentions

 Intentions will be a better predictor of behavior that is performed infrequently and
under conditions that vary greatly

 If habits are a form of goal-directed automatic behavior, they should be mentally
represented as associations between goals and actions that are instrumental for
attaining these goals

 The problem is that once a particular choice has become habitual, people are no
longer interested in searching for alternatives

 For marketers, establishing habits is exceedingly desirable because they translate into
brand-loyal consumers who structurally buy the same brands
o Frequency marketing, where repeat buying is rewarded with discounts and
special benefits

 By habitually using a particular service, store, or product, people develop a particular
skill in using this service, store, or product
o Switching would engender costs that lock consumers into making the same
choice over and over again (cognitive lock-in)

Question 19

 Habits:

Answer 19

Learned sequences of acts that have become automatic responses to specific
cues and are functional in obtaining certain goals or end states.

Question 20

cognitive lock-in

Answer 20

Switching would engender costs that lock consumers into making the same
choice over and over again

Question 21

Goal conflict and impulsive behavior

Answer 21

 Goal conflict: If internal or external stimuli simultaneously trigger two (or more) goals
that have conflicting behavioral implications.

 With self-control dilemmas, individuals who try to pursue some long-term goal are
confronted with temptations that they find difficult to resist
o Satisfaction from temptation is immediate, whereas long-term goal satisfaction
is in the future and uncertain

 Impulse buying: Often (but not always) the outcome of a goal conflict rooted in a self-
control dilemma. It is spontaneous and without a lot of reflection.

 People often engage in unpanned purchases because the sight of a product reminds
them that they really need it

 Goal conflicts result in impulse buying that is not only characterized by the absence of
a pre-shopping intention, but occurs in violation of such an intention
o Conflict between desire and willpower

 It is more plausible that impulse buying occurs mainly with goods that either serve
hedonic or identity-related functions

 One reason for control motivation to be low would be that the desirable items are not
very expensive

 Shop owners also employ various strategies to impair the ability of their customers to
exert cognitive control over their buying behavior

 When desire becomes too strong, it is likely to overcome even high levels of control
motivation

 The ability to exert self-control relies on a limited resource, and any exertion of self-
control depletes this resource

Question 22

Goal conflict:

Answer 22

If internal or external stimuli simultaneously trigger two (or more) goals
that have conflicting behavioral implications.

Question 23

Impulse buying

Answer 23

Often (but not always) the outcome of a goal conflict rooted in a self-
control dilemma. It is spontaneous and without a lot of reflection

Question 24

Implications for advertising: the return of the hidden persuaders

Answer 24

 Subliminal advertising: Advertising that uses messages that are presented so briefly
that viewers remain unaware that they have been exposed to advertising.

 Evidence that subliminal messages are ineffective (e.g. self-help tapes)
o However, they use whole sentences, which are unlikely to prime

 Shorter words (e.g. “Coke”, “thirsty”) do influence people

 Priming might work better with a brand that is not as widely advertised as Coca-Cola
and is therefore less cognitively accessible

 Since priming does nothing more than increase the cognitive accessibility of the
concept of Coca-Cola, effects will depend on the thoughts people associate with that
brand and these thoughts might differ from the brand image that the Coca-Cola
company conveys

 Priming will influence behavior only if the priming is goal relevant and people are
motivated to pursue this goal

 Effects of subliminal advertising are rather short-lived

 Priming worked only for thirsty individuals who did not drink Lipton Ice regularly: it
had no effect on habitual consumers of Lipton Ice

 Implications:
o We have to choose the subliminal prime to match the most likely consumer
choice situation
o The drink has to be thirst-quenching and people have to be thirsty
o The drink must not be the drink of first choice to consumers
o Consumers have to be in a situation in which they are able to make that choice

Question 25

Subliminal advertising

Answer 25

Advertising that uses messages that are presented so briefly
that viewers remain unaware that they have been exposed to advertising.