deck_15848455 Flashcards
1
Q
who made the multi-store model
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
2
Q
describe the multi-store model
A
information is picked up by the sensory register, if paid attention to the information is passed onto the STM where it is then stored for 18-30 seconds. if the information is rehearsed it can be transferred to the LTM which has unlimited capacity and duration. however if the information is not rehearsed whilst in the STM then retrieval failure can occur and the information can decay.
3
Q
what is the AO3 of the MSM
A
strengths : KF case study, inspired further research
weaknesses: low ecological validity, over-simplified and vague
4
Q
what are the 3 types of encoding
A
procedural (visual), acoustic and semantic
5
Q
encoding, capacity and duration of sensory register
A
encoding - echoic
capacity - unlimited
duration - 250ms - 2s
6
Q
encoding, capacity and duration of STM
A
encoding - acoustic
capacity - 5-9 items
duration - 18-30 seconds
7
Q
encoding, capacity and duration of LTM
A
encoding - semantic
capacity - unlimited
duration - unlimited
8
Q
three types of LTM
A
episodic - time stamped events (declarative)
semantic - encyclopedia/dictionary (declarative)
procedural - how we do things (non-declarative)
9
Q
who created the working memory model
A
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
10
Q
describe the working memory model
A
central executive - dominant control
phonological loop - phonological store (inner ear) articulatory control system (inner mouth)
LTM
visuo-spatial sketchpad - dual-tasking (inner eye)
11
Q
AO3 of the WMM
A
strengths : idea old dual-tasking is addressed
KF case study
weaknesses : still evolving (episodic buffer came along in 2000)
central executive’s role is vague
12
Q
explanations for forgetting
A
retroactive interference - old information affecting your ability to recall new information
proactive interference - new information affecting your ability to recall old information
contextual cues - individuals are able to recall information better in the place they learnt it
13
Q
factors that can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
A
reconstructive memory, leading questions, anxiety and post-event discussion
14
Q
how do you improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies?
A
through the use of cognitive interviews
15
Q
the four techniques of cognitive interviews
A
recall everything - individual is asked to recall everything no matter how irrelevant they may deem
reinstate context - this is to return the interviewee to the emotional state they were in when the event took place to get situational context to aid memory
change order - change the order of events to aid memory
change perspective - ask the individual to recall from a different perspective to possibly aid memory
16
Q
define conformity
A
a change in a person’s behaviour or opinion as a result of a real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people
17
Q
the 3 types of conformity
A
internalisation - the changing of belief both publicly and privately to match the majority of the group (LONG-TERM)
identification - the changing of beliefs both publicly and privately but only in the presence of a group (short-term)
compliance - changing of behaviour to match the majority group however the beliefs do not change (temporary)
18
Q
2 explanations for conformity
A
normative social influence - influence of people that leads us to conform due to wanting to be accepted
informational social influence - wanting to be right and looking to the group for the answer
19
Q
3 factors affecting conformity
A
task difficulty
unanimity
group size
20
Q
Asch’s line study
A
aim : to investigate whether social pressure would make a person conform
procedure : 123 male American undergraduates in groups of 6 with 5 confederates were asked to identify which line is most in comparison to the main line. real participant was always asked last or second to last and the confederates intentionally gave the wrong answer 12 out of 18 trials
findings : 75% conformed at least once, 36.8% conformed, 25% didn’t conform only 1% were incorrect
conclusion : most conformed to avoid rejection from majority even though they knew the right answer.
21
Q
AO3 of Asch’s line study
A
strengths : high heuristic value, highly controlled
weaknesses : gender bias, population validity and deception
22
Q
Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
A
aim : To investigate how readily people would conform to the social roles in a simulated environment, and specifically, to investigate why ‘good people do bad things’
procedure : 24 American male undergraduates who were deemed ‘ mentally stable’ were selected and assigned roles of either prison guard or prisoner. both had uniforms and the prisoners were referred to as only their numbers in a mock prison set up in the basement of the psychology department. guards were given handcuffs and sunglasses to reinforce boundaries
findings : guards became increasingly brutal and aggressive, some admitted to enjoying their roles. The guards became more demanding of obedience and assertiveness towards the prisoners while the prisoners became more submissive
conclusion : the uniforms created a loss of personal identity and social roles had a strong influence on the individuals behaviours
23
Q
AO3 of Zimbardo’s experiment
A
strengths :
real life application- this research changed the way actual US prisons are run
-the ppts were fully debriefed about the aims and results of the study
-highly controlled
weaknesses :
-protection from harm
-gender bias, lacks population validity
-demand characteristics, ppts knew they were participating in the study
24
Q
what is the agentic state?
A
a mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe we are acting for an authority figure
25
what is legitimacy of authority
an explanation for obedience which suggests that we are more likely to obey people who we perceive to have authority over us
26
Milgram's shock experiment
aim : To observe whether people would obey a figure of authority when told to harm another person i.e. evaluating the influence of a
destructive authority figure.
procedure : 40 male volunteers were assigned either the role of a teacher or learner, ppts were asked a series of questions when the confederates got an answer wrong the ppt was asked to shock the confederate
findings : 65% continued to the highest of 450V , all continued to 300V
conclusion : ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure
27
AO3 of Milgram's shock experiment
strengths : real life application- it could reduce future obedience in response to destructive authority figures.
-high control
-ppts were fully debriefed on the real aims of the study
weaknesses : no right to withdraw, no protection from psychological harm
-gender bias
-ecological validity, tasks given are not like those we would encounter everyday
28
the authoritarian personality
a person with high respect for authority and is more likely to be obedient to those who hold power over them
29
what is social support
the presence of people who resist pressures to conform or obey can help others to do the same
30
resistance to social influence: what is the locus of control?
a measurement of an individuals sense of control over their lives
31
internal locus of control
(more control) their behaviour is caused by their own personal decisions and effort
32
external locus of control
(less control) behaviour is caused by luck or fate
33
the 3 main processes in minority influence
consistency - the influence of a minority is most effective when it is consistent and when the minority have so much passion and confidence in their point of view, it suggests to the majority that their view must somehow be valid.
commitment - engaging in quite extreme activities
flexibility - majority opinions shifts more if the minority is flexible
34
what is social change?
when whole societies rather than just individuals adopt new attitudes, beliefs and ways of doing things.
35
what is the snowball effect?
when a minority succeeds in attracting enough supporters, it is transformed into the new majority
36
definition of attachment
a strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary care giver
37
definition of reciprocity
a two way, mutual, infant led interaction between infant and caregiver
38
definition of interactional synchrony
a coordinated interaction led by the infant between infant and caregiver (mirrored actions and emotions)
39
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) stages of attachment
aim - To identify stages of attachment
procedure - longitudinal study in which 60 infants from Glasgow were analysed in their homes with family once a month for 12 months and then again at 18 months. their interactions were analysed, the carers were interviewed and the carers had a diary to track the infants behaviours.
findings - by 7-8 months, 50% of the babies showed separation anxiety towards mothers. by 10 months, 80% had a specific attachment and 30% had multiple.
conclusion - attachments develop through a series o stages
40
AO3 of Schaffer and Emerson's stages of attachment
strengths:
-longitudinal study
-ecological validity (done in a natural environment, reduces demand c)
weaknesses:
-lacks population validity (infants all came from Glasgow and possibly working class families)
-asocial stage cant be studied as objectively (infants as young as 6 months lack basic motor skills, we cannot interpret their separation anxiety as deliberate)
-lacks internal validity (uses self-report technique therefore the accuracy of the data collection may not be the best)
41
4 stages of attachment
1) asocial stage - 6 weeks, infant has no discrimination between humans and objects but responds more to faces and eyes
2) indiscriminate stage - 6 weeks - 6 months, no fear of strangers, can be comforted by anyone, begin to bond with familiar adults
3) specific stage - 7 months, separation anxiety, distress in the company of strangers, prefers one particular carer
4) multiple stage - 10 months, attachment to primary caregiver grows, seeks security comfort and protection in multiple people
42
role of the father - Schaffer and Emerson
75% of the infants formed a secondary attachment to their father by 18 months
29% did so within a month of forming a primary attachment
suggests the fathers role is important, but they're unlikely to be the primary attachment formed.
43
role of the father - Field
She observed interactions between infants and their primary caregiver mothers or fathers, and found that primary caregivers, regardless of gender, were
more attentive towards the infant and spent more time holding and smiling at them. This suggests that although mothers are often expected to become primary attachment figures, this does not always have to be the case
44
animal studies - Harlow (1958)
aim - to investigate the cupboard love theory
procedure - longitudinal study over a period of 165 days with 8 rhesus monkeys. they were placed in cages where there were 2 surrogate mothers present one providing food but no comfort and the other comfort but no food.
findings - when the monkeys were scared with a noisy mechanical object they always ran to the surrogate mother that provided comfort.
conclusion - attachment is more concerned with warmth and emotional security than food. early deprivation causes irreversible damage
45
AO3 of Harlow's study
strengths:
-longitudinal study
-real world application (social workers now know it is important for babies to be adopted quickly as possible in order for them to form an attachment)
weaknesses:
-generalisability (difficult for humans to be compared to animals, attachment in humans may differ)
-reliability, this cannot be repeated therefore making it unreliable
46
animal studies - Lorenz (1952)
aim - to investigate how attachments form in geese
procedure - 12 geese eggs, 6 for control group with mum and 6 placed in incubator until hatched. when they hatched Lorenz was the first moving thing they saw. he imitated geese quacking noises to trick the gozzlings into believing he was the mother.
findings - gozzlings imprinted onto Lorenz, followed him to provide food and their critical period is 12-17 hours
conclusion - once imprinting has occurred it cannot be reversed, nor can a gozzling imprint on anything else.
47
AO3 of Lorenz's study
strengths :
-successfully identified critical period in animals
weaknesses :
-researcher bias
48
Bowlby's learning theory
-maternal deprivation before the age of 5 for 6 months or more can affect your cognitive and emotional development
-could have increased aggression possibly leading affectionless psychopathy
-reduced intelligence
49
Bowlby 44 thieves study
aim : investigate long-term effects of maternal deprivation on people to see if delinquents suffer it
procedure : opportunity sample 88 children, 44 control group and 44 for experimental group. they were asked to take IQ tests and the social workers asked to make reports.
findings : 32% shows affectionless psychopathy
50
AO3 of Bowlby's study
strengths : longitudinal , control group
limitations : retrospective data , experimenter bias
51
Bowlby's monotropic theory
So : social releasers - crying and looking cute
M : monotropy - forming one special attachment with mother
A : adaptive advantage - attachments enable us to adapt to our environment e.g. learning to walk
G : good quality care - mothers are responsive to the child's needs
I : internal working model - first attachment forms a template for future relationships
C : critical period - babies must form an attachment within the first 12 months otherwise they are damaged socially, emotionally and intellectually
52
Ainsworth's strange situation
aim : to observe 10 infants ages between 9-18 months and assess them for the quality of their attachments
procedure : 8 stages
1) mother and child enter
2) child is encouraged to explore by the mother
3) stranger enters and attempts to interact with the child
4) mother leaves, just stranger and child
5) mother enters and stranger leaves
6) mother leaves
7) stranger returns
8) mother returns and interacts with child
findings : 70% secure
15% insecure avoidant
15% insecure resistant
conclusion : the way the mother acts towards the child and the child's needs will have an impact on the child's behaviour
53
AO3 of Strange situation
strengths : easy to replicate
-gives clear insight into attachments in infants
weaknesses : Solomon and Main argued putting infants into 3 categories is reductionist, they created a fourth (disorganised attachment)
ethnocentric - cross cultural research suggests this study uses western values to judge attachment types
validity - laboratory settings were unfamiliar which leaves room for demand characteristics
54
types of attachment
secure - uses mother as secure base, moderate distress when separated from mother, won't interact with stranger, joy upon reunion with mother
insecure resistant - intense distress when separated from mother, alternated between seeking closeness and wanting distance, not easily comforted when mother returns as was angry at her
insecure avoidant - shows willingness to explore, no interest when separated from mother and will happily play with strangers, ignores mother after separation
55
Cultural Variations
collectivist culture - one that emphasises family and work goals above individual needs, high degree of dependence on people
individualistic culture - emphasises personal independence and achievement at the expense of group goals, resulting in a strong sense of competition
56
Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)
aim : to investigate how attachment types vary across cultures
procedures : completed a meta-analysis on 32 studies using Ainsworth's strange situation of over 1990 babies. attachment types both within and between different cultures was studied.
findings : secure attachment was most common in all countries.
England had the most secure, Germany had the most insecure avoidant and Israel had the most insecure resistant.
conclusion : caregiver and infant interactions were similar around the world with some intra-cultural variation
57
AO3 of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg
strengths :
large sample size - this significantly developed our understanding of different child rearing practices around the world
meta analysis - more evidence based data
longitudinal - more valid data
weaknesses :
different sample sizes - 18 out of the 32 studies were from the US and Japan had 2, distorts overall findings difficult to make true cultural comparisons
culture bound - biased due to only using American children, difficult to generalise
58
Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation
if continuous care from a mother is absent from a child's life for 6 months or longer before the age of two they could develop affectionless psychopathy, have low IQ and delayed intellectual development.
59
AO3 of Bowlby's maternal deprivation
strengths :
-44 thieves study - proof that time spent away from mother can cause cognitive issues
weaknesses:
-Czech twins were locked away in cupboard between ages 18 months to 7 years but were able to form attachment with new parents
-privation, Rutter argues Bowlby confused deprivation and privation (attachment was not there to begin with)
60
# Rutter
Romanian Orphanages research
**aim** : to investigate the effects of early institutional care and deprivation on later life development
**procedure** : 165 romanian infants, 58 adopted before 6m, 59 adopted betwwen 6m and 1y, 48 babies between 2-4, control group of 52 english children adopted at the same time.
physical, emotional and cognitive development was assessed at a variety of ages.
**findings** : all showed delaed intellectual development, at 11 the mean IQ score for those adopted before 6m was 102. those adopted between 6m and 1y the mean IQ score was 86. those adopted after 2 years had a mean IQ score of 77.
**conclusion** : those adopted after the age of 2 showed attachment style called disinhibited attachment, clingy and attention seeking. when children dont form attachments, the consequences are likely to be severe.
61
# AO3
AO3 of romanian orphanage study
| 3 strengths 2 weaknesses
**strengths** : **confounding variables,** high internal validity because these orphans did not suffer abuse beforehand like other studies
**real world application**, has led to improvements in how we care for looked after children
**longitudinal,** also makes the findings more reliable because it records any changes that could have happened over a long period of time
**weaknesses** : low ecological **validity** - the orphanages did not provide any intellectual stimulation for the orphans, which may have had a
larger impact on their intellectual development compared to maternal
deprivation as a single cause.
**environmental factors** - the study doesnt consider there may still be adverse affects for the children adopted before 6 months
62
effects of institutionalisation compared to family led care
**orphanage** : no attachment figure, less sociable and less intelligent
**family led care** : strong emotional attachment, more sociable and more intelligent
63
# early attachment and later relationships
internal working model
a baby's first attachment will form a template for their future relationships, if their first attachment was loving and secure they will form funtional relationships. however if they suffered abuse or neglect as a child, they may reject intimacy in adulthood.
64
# AO3
AO3 of early attachment and later relationships
strengths : Bailey - found most women had the same attahcment style with their children they had with their mothers.
weaknesses: causal relationship - just because there is a relationship between attachment type and later relationships does not mean one caused the other
65
# 4
definitions of abnormality
1. statistical infrequency
2. deviation from social norms
3. failure to function adequately
4. deviation from ideal mental health
66
statistical infrequency
behaviour, traits or thinking that is seen as rare or statistically unusual e.g. IQ below 70
67
# AO3
AO3 of statistical infrequency
strengths : real world application - it is used in clinical practice as an assessment tool for diagnosis
weaknesses : many rare behaviours or characteristics are seen as rare not a problem
68
deviation from social norms
behaviour considered abnormal because it goes against socieities standards of what the norm is
69
# AO3
AO3 of deviation from social norms
**strengths**: it is a comprehensive definition
**weaknesses** : cultural relativism - some behaviours may be seen as socially acceptable in one culture however in another seen as abnormal
70
failure to function adequately
a person who shows behaviours that they cannot cope with the tasks/pressure of everyday life e.g. lack of hygiene
71
# failure to function adequately
Rosenham and Seligman
seven major features of failure to function adequately
1. suffering
2. maladaptiveness
3. irrational
4. observer discomfort
5. vividness
6. violation of moral codes
7. unpredictability
72
# AO3
AO3 of failure to function adequately
**strengths** : economic conditions - holding down a job and supporting family may not always be possible, high unemployment rates prevent this.
**weaknesses :** cultural relativism - what is classed as irrational in some cultures is not the same as others
73
deviation from ideal mental health
judges someones mental health in the same way as physical health, requiring certain attributes to be deemed mentally healthy
74
# deviation from ideal mental health
Jahoda (1958)
## Footnote
theres 6 xxx
found 6 categories that were commonly referred to as desirable for mental health
1. positive attitudes towards self
2. resistance to stress
3. self-actualisation
4. autonomy
5. accurate perception of reality
6. can adapt to new situations
75
# AO3
AO3 of deviation from ideal mental health
**strengths** : useful - Jahoda has helped society see mental health as similar to physical health which has helped to reduce the stigma associated with mental health
**weaknesses** : unrealistic - many of us would strggle to meet the criteria of good mental health, making it an impossibly high standard to live up to
76
what is a phobia?
it is an anxiety disorder in which someone has an irrational fear of an object or situation
77
# phobias
behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias
## Footnote
two for each
behavioural : panic, avoidance
emotional : anxiety, fear
cognitive : irrational beliefs, selective attention
78
# depression
what is depression?
depression is a mood disorder
79
# depression
behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of depression
## Footnote
two for each
**behavioural** : aggression (suicide), disruption to sleep levels (insomnia)
**emotional** : lowered mood, anger
**cognitive** : poor concentration, absolutist thinking
80
# OCD
what is OCD?
an intrusive disorder where a person has obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours
81
# OCD
behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of OCD
behavioural : repetitive compulsions/actions, avoidance
emotional : depression, irrational guilt
cognitive : obsessions (intrusive thoughts), selective attention
82
# the **behavioural approach** to **explaning** phobias:
what is the two process model?
phobias are initiated through classical conditioning (learning through association)
and maintained through operant conditioning, the sufferer avoids the anxiety of the situation
(negative reinforcement)
83
# the **behavioural approach** to **explaining** phobias:
Classical Conditioning - Little Albert
UCS : the loud noise --> UCR : fear
UCS + NS (noise + rat) ---> UCR : fear
CS : rat ---> CR : fear
84
# AO3
AO3 of the behavioural approach
## Footnote
one each
strengths : real world application - treatment such as systematic desensitisation and flooding have been developed from the two process model and proven successful in unlearning phobias
weaknesses : biological preparedness - Seligman argues phobias can develop without a traumatic event because humans are genetically programmed to leanr association between dangerous stimuli and fear
85
# **behavioural approach** to **treating** disorders :
what is systematic desensitisation?
## Footnote
three stages
**stage one** : the client is taught relaxation techniques
**stage two** : an anxiety heirarchy is created
**stage three** : the client works through each stage, using the relaxation techniques at every step only moving up when they no longer feel anxious at the current one
86
# AO3
AO3 of systematic desensitisation
strengths :
* it is 75% effective, McGarth (1990)
* Humphrey (1973) argued SD is effctive even when self administered making it cos-effective.
weakness :
* symptom substitution - could be confusing for the ppt because they are substituting one emotion for another
87
# **behavioural approach** to **treating** phobias :
what is flooding?
## Footnote
4 steps xxx
* the client is taught relaxation techniques
* has immediate exposure to their phobic stimulus for usually 2-3 hours
* as adrenaline naturally decreases, a new stimulus response is learned
* leads to relaxtion/exhaustion
88
# AO3
AO3 of flooding
## Footnote
one each
strengths :
* Choy et al (2007) reported both were **effective** but flooding more effective of the two
* cost-effective
weaknesses :
* unethical - can be highly distressing for the individual, could argue their right to withdraw is denied during the experience and protection from harm
89
# **cognitive approach** to **explaining** depression :
Beck's explanations for depression
## Footnote
theres three of them xx
1. negative triad - negative view of the world, negative view of the future, negative view of self
2. negative self-schema - interpreting information about ourselves in a negative way
3. faulty information processing - if depressed we tend to focus only on the negative aspects of life and ignore anything positive
90
# AO3
AO3 of Beck's explanations
## Footnote
one each xx
strengths :
* real world application - his inventory allows us to assess depressive symptoms in patients and develop cognitive therapies
weaknesses :
* reductionist - it blames the patient for their depression instead of focusing on the environmental factors rather than their irrational thoughts
91
# **cognitive approach** to **explaining** depression :
Ellis' ABC model
ABC model
* activating event ; triggers that can cause distress
* beliefs ; irrational belief
* consequences ; irrational beliefs leading to unhealthy emotions
92
# AO3
AO3 of Ellis' ABC model
strengths :
* real world application - he developed REBT (rational emotional behavioural therapy) which can challnge irrational beliefs and relieve depressive symptoms
weaknesses :
* reductionist - blames the person for their depression instead of the environmental factors rather more their irrational beliefs
93
# **cognitive approach** to **treating** depression:
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
aims to challenge irrational and dysfunctional thought processes by identifying and testing negative beliefs which can help the client to reframe their thinking during moments of heightened anxiety or panic.
94
# AO3
AO3 of CBT
strengths :
* highly effective - March et al (2007) compared CBT with drugs and a combination of the two in 327 adolescents, 81% of both groups showed improvement and 86% of combination. CBT is just as effective as antidepressants and works well alongside drugs
weaknesses :
* time-consuming - time consuming and expensive and there can be very long waiting lists, relapse rates can also be high in the long term
95
# **cognitive approach** to **treating** depression:
Ellis' REBT
**Rational Emotional Behavioural Therapy**
disputing irrational thoughs and seeing a beneficial effect on thoughts and behaviours (disputing using logic, empirical evidence and pragmatic)
| pragmatic meaning is this thought useful to me
96
# **biological approach** to **explaining** OCD:
genetic expxlanations
Lewis 1936 found that:
* 37% of his patients had parents with OCD
* 21% had siblings with OCD
suggesting it runs within the family.
* mutations of the SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin creating lower levels of it implicating OCD
97
# **biological approah** to **explaining** OCD:
neural explanations
* dopamine levels are abnormally high and/or serotonin levels are low in people with OCD
* when the caudate nucleus is damaged it fails to supress the worry signals and the thalamus is alerted constantly
98
# **biological approach** to **explaining** OCD:
AO3 of neural and genetic explanations
## Footnote
2 for genetic and one for neural xxx
genetic :
* Nestadt (2000) conducted twin studies an found 68% of monozygotic twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of dizygotic demonstrating a genetic cause.
* concordance rates are never 100%, we have predisposition to it but environmental factors determine if we get it
neural :
* animal studies - a study was conducted and it was found that if we increased rats' dopamine with level with drugs, they would display stereotpical behaviours resembling the compulsive behaviours found in OCD sufferers
99
# **biological approach** to **treating** OCD:
drug therapies
* fluoxetine - patients are given 20mg and start on a low dosage, usually prescribed alongside CBT
* if the drugs are not effective after 3-4 months other drugs such as tricylics which have the same effect
100
# AO3
AO3 of drug therapies
strengths:
* 17 studies were reviewed where SSRI's were used to treat OCD and it was found that it was more effective than the placebo
* relatively cheap when compared to psychological therapies, however they only treat the symptoms and not the root cause
weaknesses:
* SSRI's can cause headaches, nausea and insomnia which can mean people stop taking the medication
* side effects of tricylics are severe hallucinations, irregular heart beat and weight gain
