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debates and issues Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the main debates?

A
  • free will-determinism
  • nature-nurture
  • holism-reductionism
  • nomothetic-ideographic
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2
Q

what are the main issues?

A
  • gender
  • cultural
  • ethics
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3
Q

What is bias?

A
  • the inclination for or against a person or group, especially in a way considered to be inaccurate or unfair
  • the effects the psychologist’s own background eg. values, experiences, social and historical influences, etc. may have on a theory or outcome of a study
  • it undermines the ability of psychological research/theories to be applied to every human regardless of differing experience (universality).
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4
Q

alpha bias

A
  • research that exaggerates or overestimates the differences between sexes
  • such differences usually devalue individuals sexes experiences/behaviours
  • the differences are presented as real, long, and unavoidable.
    Eg. sexual behaviours between the sexes (male as promiscuous)
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5
Q

beta bias

A
  • research ignores, minimises, or underestimates differences between the sexes
  • such as when one sex is not included as part of the research yet findings are applied equally to all
    > androcentrism
    Eg. fight or flight was taken from male only studies, more recent studies have also identified tend or befriend
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6
Q

androcentrism

A
  • a type of beta bias
  • when females are underrepresented yet results are applied to them in the same way
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7
Q

what are the consequences of gender bias?

A
  • misrepresentation and misunderstanding
  • essentialism
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8
Q

Misrepresentation and misunderstanding (gender bias)

A

within research, misrepresentation of certain groups can bring about misleading assumptions and therefore misunderstood behaviour. In this manner, biased research:
- fails to challenge negative stereotypes
- validates discriminating practices and beliefs
- provides scientific justification
- can prevent opportunity

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9
Q

essentialism (gender bias)

A
  • suggests that there are inherent and unchanging characteristics or qualities that define somethings true nature or ‘essence’
  • often implies a belief in fixed and permanent properties that define groups or individuals. It can lead to…
  • over-simplification
  • stereotyping
  • elevation of one group or another
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10
Q

ways of avoiding or overcoming gender bias

A
  • reflexivity
  • feminist psychology
  • being inclusive
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11
Q

reflexivity

A
  • this involves the researcher having an awareness of their own beliefs, judgements, biases, values, practices, etc. during the research process
  • includes acknowledging and critically reflecting upon their own subjectivity and how it may have influenced results through the design, data collection, and interpretation of findings
  • this reduces bias by making researchers confront subjective elements to enhance the rigour and objectivity of their research
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12
Q

feminist psychology

A
  • an attempt to correct the male dominance/imbalance within psychological theory and research
  • ensuring women take part in investigations, are studied in meaningful contexts, and that research focuses on diversity within groups of women too
  • often prioritises research topics that have been historically overlooked or underrepresented
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13
Q

being inclusive

A
  • simplest fix
  • including participants of both sexes in research or making it clear within the reporting of findings that any conclusion relates only to the sex/gender of the participants
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14
Q

cultural bias

A
  • the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the view of ones own culture
  • spectrum of bias from ethnocentrism to cultural relativism
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15
Q

what is ethnocentrism?

A
  • ‘centred around one ethnicity’
    > when a researcher judges another culture by the standards of their own culture
    > when we impose our own cultural understanding on the rest of the world this is known as an imposed etic
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16
Q

example of cultural relativism

A

Margaret Mead identified differences in the gender roles within indigenous tribes of Papua New Guinea

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17
Q

what is cultural relativism?

A
  • recognising that research may only make sense from the perspective of the culture in which it was carried out
    > reduces cultural bias and demonstrates an understanding that ideas/norms/values/moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
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18
Q

how can cultural relativism also be dangerous?

A

can lead to people not stepping in to help others from other cultures due to a belief that they can’t understand the situation

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19
Q

etic

A

looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe such behaviours as universal

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20
Q

emic

A

functions from within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

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21
Q

examples of ethnocentrism

A

Ainsworth’s strange situation, diagnostic manuals (in 1995, African-Carribbeans were 7x more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness), and intelligence testing

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22
Q

Nature

A

(nativists)
- heritability coefficient (a number between 0-1, the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis)
- 0 (entirely environmental) to 1 (entirely genetic)
- EG. the heritability coefficient for intelligence is 0.5

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23
Q

nurture

A
  • Environmental influences such as the social conditions the child grows up in or the cultural and historical context that they are part of
  • also includes the prenatal environment the baby develops in
  • Lerner (1986) suggested that environmental influences include:
    1. Prenatal environment eg. stress, alcohol, etc.
    2. Post-natal environment eg. diet, education, role models, etc.
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24
Q

Gottesman 1997

A

conducted a large scale family study into concordance rates for Schizophrenia, as genetic similarities increased so did concordance which reinforces the nature side of the debate

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25
Q

the interactionist approach

A
  • the notion that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate them
  • researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other
  • eg. the diathesis stress model takes an interactionist approach
    > eg. Tienari for nature-nurture
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26
Q

Tienari et al.

A

found that in a group of Finnish adoptees, those most likely to develop Schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of the disorder and relationships with their adoptive families that were defined as dysfunctional.

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27
Q

epigenetics

A
  • the study of how your behaviour and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work
    > eg. lifestyle like smoking, war, and pollution leave ‘marks’ on our DNA
    > these ‘marks’ tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which ones to use
    > these may then go on and influence the genetic codes of our children as well as their children
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28
Q

how does epigenetics challenge the nature-nurture debate?

A

Epigenetics challenges the traditional view of the nature-nurture debate by showing that life experiences can induce epigenetic changes in individual organisms and their offspring

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29
Q

example of epigenetic changes - smoking

A

studies have found that smoking can lead to the inactivation of tumour suppressor genes which can then be passed down to children and grandchildren (recent studies finding a link between grand-maternal smoking and paediatric disease)

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30
Q

Example of beta bias, what are the consequences of this?

A

eg. Zimbardo re-created (with some differences) the Milgram obedience study in 1969 on female university students. He concluded that de-individuation leads to an increase in antisocial behaviour.
> it ignores men, making conclusions about the general population without any representation of males within the sample
> it therefore misrepresents the population, possibly leading to inaccurate beliefs about male behaviour

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31
Q

Example of alpha bias, what are the consequences?

A

eg. Wilson concluded that the reason why 95% of bank managers, company directors, judges, and university professors are male rather than female is because men are more competitive and dominant due to their male hormones.
> it exaggerates the differences between the sexes and undervalues women
> essentialism
> could lead to stereotyping or limit opportunities for women

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32
Q

consequences/impact/implications of cultural bias

A
  • misrepresentation and misunderstanding
  • essentialism
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33
Q

misrepresentation and misunderstanding (cultural bias)

A
  • fails to challenge negative stereotypes
  • validates discriminating practices and beliefs
  • provides scientific justification
  • can prevent opportunity eg. within work
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34
Q

essentialism (cultural bias)

A
  • differences are fixed:
  • over-simplification
  • stereotyping
  • elevation of one group over another
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35
Q

Ways of Avoiding/Overcoming Cultural Bias in Psychology

A
  • not extrapolating
  • cross-cultural research (native researchers)
  • being inclusive
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36
Q

Do not extrapolate

A
  • we can overcome cultural bias within psychology if researchers do not attempt to extrapolate findings and/or theories to cultures that are not represented in the research sample. - prevents an assumption that universal norms and standards exist across different cultures
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37
Q

Cross-cultural research

A
  • instead of sole-cultural research
  • preferable to use researchers native to and therefore familiar with and possibly immersed in the culture being investigated
  • where non-native researchers are involved, it is important for them to be sensitive to the cultural norms and standards when designing research and reporting findings - this will prevent/reduce the impact of an imposed etic
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38
Q

being inclusive (cultural bias)

A
  • overcoming cultural bias by including participants from a range of backgrounds, reflective of the demographic in which the research is being conducted
  • or making it clear within the reporting of findings that any conclusion can only relate to those used within the sample
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39
Q

example of ethnocentrism and consequence

A

Eg. Zimbardo’s prison study assessed the impacts of a prison environment on American students, the findings highlighted how situation factors can strongly influence behaviour
> it applies findings from one demographic (Americans) to all
> misunderstanding and misrepresentation of other cultures

40
Q

example of cultural relativism and consequence

A

Eg. Buss (1989) conducted a cross-cultural study into evolution and mate selection including data from the US, Germany, England, The Netherlands, Kenya, India, China, Japan, South Korea, Brazil, Mexico, and Nigeria. He identified similarities and differences between these cultures.
> taking data from a range of areas and considering the impact of culture on the findings
> could have used researchers from within the cultures (emic)

41
Q

social sensitivity

A

where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research leading to a change in, or justification for, the way in which these groups are treated/perceived.
> eg. studies into genetic basis for criminality, race and intelligence, etc.

42
Q

ethical implications

A
  • consider the impact or consequences of socially sensitive topics on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants of research
  • we cannot necessarily protect against the social impact of research once it has been published
  • eg. interpretation and representation in the media/implementation into policy/influence on societal views of groups cannot be controlled
  • so research always has a wider ethical implication that needs to be considered
43
Q

ethical guidelines (vs implications)

A

Can do/can’t do with participants
- deception
- debriefing
- confidentiality
- withdrawal
- consent
- protection from harm

44
Q

ethical implications (vs guidelines)

A
  • impact of research once published
  • use of results once published
  • ability to maintain control of the results
45
Q

things to think about for ethical considerations

A
  • think about the effects on participants and the wider public
  • the potential use of findings - socioeconomic impact, changes to legislation
  • potential for bias (discrimination, moral attitudes)
46
Q

free will

A
  • belief that we have some choice in how we act
  • assumes that we are free to choose our behaviour
  • acknowledges that there are biological and environmental influences but implies that we are able to reject such forces and be in control
47
Q

determinism

A
  • proposes that all behaviour is caused by preceding factors which make behaviour predictable
  • these factors may be internal or external and the causal laws that determinism abides by form the basic principles of science
  • it ultimately suggests that free will has no place in explaining behaviour
48
Q

hard determinism

A
  • all human behaviour has a cause, it should be possible to identify and describe these causes as is compatible with the aims of science
    > psychodynamic, behaviourist, biological approaches
49
Q

soft determinism

A
  • while acknowledging that all human behaviour has a cause, there is room for manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control
    > cognitive approach
50
Q

subtypes of determinism

A

environmental, psychic, biological, reciprocal

51
Q

environmental determinism

A
  • our ‘choice’ is merely an illusion, the sum of conditioning and reinforcement that have been present throughout our lives. Often reciprocal.
    > behaviourist approach
52
Q

psychic determinism

A
  • there is no such thing as an accident, behaviour is driven by instinct and unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood.
    > psychodynamic approach
53
Q

biological determinism

A
  • behaviour is the result of biological drives that are functioning internally. For example, our genetics, hormones, brain structure, etc. that shape us.
    > biological approach
54
Q

reciprocal determinism

A
  • a persons behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment (coined by Bandura who identified a triad of cognition, environment, and behaviour)
    > social learning theory
55
Q

evaluating ethical implications

A
  • cost-benefit discussions
  • short-term costs vs long-term gains
  • dealing with social sensitivity (identify concerns, consider wider effects, uses IRL, validity of research)
  • reflexivity
56
Q

cost-benefit discussions

A
  • critically assess whether the benefit outweighs the potential costs of the research
  • knowledge gained, societal advancements, practical applications vs potential harm and negative societal consequences (eg. discrimination)
57
Q

short-term costs vs long-term gains

A
  • evaluate ethical implications in terms of both immediate costs (participants distress/harm) with long-term gains (societal awareness, policy changes)
58
Q

dealing with social sensitivity

A
  • Identify concerns
  • Consider wider effects
  • Uses/public policy
  • Validity of research
59
Q

identify concerns (dealing with social sensitivity)

A

recognise and address concerns to ensure ethical conduct, researchers should be mindful of potential harm, stigmatisation, or prejudice that might arise from their studies

60
Q

consider wider effects (dealing with social sensitivity)

A

consider the broader societal implications, highlighting the importance of assessing how research findings might be interpreted and used by the public, potential for reinforcing prejudice/discrimination

61
Q

uses/public policy (dealing with social sensitivity)

A

how their findings might be interpreted and applied within the real world, this includes considering who is funding the research

62
Q

validity of research (dealing with social sensitivity)

A

it is important for researchers to be upfront about personal biases and preconceptions by including reflexive discussions, this prevents research from being presented as objective

63
Q

reflexivity (ethical implications

A
  • the importance of self-reflection and ethical responsibilities for researchers
  • consider how a researcher’s personal biases and values influence the research process
64
Q

evaluation of a freewill stance

A

+positive outlook, empowering which is good for mind and behaviour
> individuals with an internal locus of control tend to be mentally healthier than external
+ makes us feel in control of our behaviour and in control of changing
- we may not ever have free will, even when we think we do
- can lead to blaming

65
Q

evaluation of a determinist stance

A

+ predicting behaviour/scientific (can put interventions in place to support people)
+ removes blame
- implications for the judicial system - no accountability
- removes freedom and dignity, devalues human behaviour
- unfalsifiable to claim that there will always be a cause for behaviour
- Roberts et al (2000) found that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism had a significantly greater risk of depression

66
Q

reductionism

A
  • based on the scientific principle of parsimony (where the simplest explanation is preferred)
  • a process of analysing behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts
  • describing a complex phenomenon in terms of its fundamental aspects
  • creates the simplest, easiest and most economical level of explanation, the idea is that this is sufficient
67
Q

holism

A
  • separate parts of a whole are intimately connected, so much so that they cannot exist independently of the whole
  • the whole is the most important aspect
  • views the breaking down of behaviour as inappropriate as the parts cannot be understood without considering the whole
68
Q

what did Gestalt psychologists declare?

A
  • Gestalt psychologists famously declared that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’
69
Q

what are the three forms of reductionism?

A

biological, machine, environmental

70
Q

biological reductionism

A
  • All behaviour is at some level biological since we are all biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes that are physically testable
  • eg. the biological approach
71
Q

machine reductionism

A
  • Behaviour can be explained via an analogy of machine systems
  • Simple machine components are used as a means to describe and explain behaviour (input/output, storage, central processors).
  • eg. the computer model for memory
72
Q

environmental reductionism

A
  • All behaviour can be explained in terms of stimulus-response links that are learnt through experience
  • these behaviours are physically testable therefore excludes mental processes
  • eg. operant conditioning
73
Q

levels of reductionism

A
  • the important idea that there are different ways of viewing the same phenomena
  • explanations vary from those at a lower level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more holistic multivariable level.
74
Q

lowest level of reductionism

A

physiological
- explores biological processes such as genetics, biochemistry, and brain structure by breaking them down into their constituent parts

75
Q

middle level of reductionism

A

psychological
- seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes via cognitive, emotional and possibly social factors

76
Q

highest level of reductionism

A

social/cultural
- analyses complex human behaviours in terms of social interactions, cultural norms, and societal structures

77
Q

interactionist approach to the levels of reductionism

A
  • where several reductionist levels are considered in conjunction with each other
  • For example, they might think about how different levels interact with each other e.g. experience impacting our biological make up.
78
Q

Examples of an interactionist approach include in:

A
  • psychoanalysis (interaction in development of components of personality)
  • mental health (environmental and biological influence, diathesis stress model)
79
Q

what does holism argues reductionism fails to do?

A

argues that reductionism doesn’t work because of ‘emergent properties’ which…
- Cannot be reduced to the level below
- Are the result of various interacting components within a system
- Do not belong to any individual components themes
- Cannot, therefore, be observed by looking at individual components.
E.g. Looking at individual neurons will not tell you how the brain works or what it can do

80
Q

examples of holistic approaches

A

humanism and social psychology (eg. social influence)

81
Q

evaluation of holism

A

+ meaningfulness (methods like interviews produce richer, more detailed info, take context into account)
+ usefulness (can only understand human experience through studying the whole, importance on the value of experience and feelings/context for understanding behaviour)
- not scientific (not easily testable so often vague and subjective, difficult to establish causal relationships)

82
Q

evaluation of reductionism

A

+ scientific (easily testable in an objective and empirical way, allows for inference of causal relationships, consistent with the approaches of other sciences)
+ usefulness (development of treatments that can be tested and measured, interactionist approach to the levels eg. diathesis stress model)
- loss of meaning (difficulty to balance objectivity and empiricism with meaningfulness, components do not reflect whole experience particularly at the lower levels, over-simplification)

83
Q

nomothetic approach to research

A
  • the study or discovery of general scientific laws
  • aims to produce general laws of human behaviour
  • therefore psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others to provide a “benchmark” from which others can be compared and behaviour can be predicted/controlled

often quantitative data

84
Q

idiographic approach to research

A
  • related to the study or discovery of unique entities
  • aims to discover what makes us all individual
  • psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with the study of personal, subjective experience without a view of comparing or generalising behaviours to a larger group or set of norms

often descriptive data

85
Q

examples of nomothetic research methods

A

lab, structured interviews, some self-reports, field, natural, some observations

86
Q

examples of idiographic research methods

A

case studies, unstructured interviews, some self-reports, some observations

87
Q

what makes research nomothetic?

A
  • often large sample sizes
  • sampling method gives a representative selection eg. random or stratified
  • use a testable hypothesis
  • analyses would probably involve quantitative methods eg. statistical testing followed by the drawing of conclusions in relation to a wider population
88
Q

where does biopsychology sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?

A
  • nomothetic
  • seeks to portray potential principles, brains scans and religiously tested hypotheses
89
Q

where does behaviourism sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?

A
  • nomothetic
  • sought one set of rules for all animals
90
Q

where does social learning theory sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?

A
  • nomothetic
  • general laws of behaviour and learning, lab experiments
91
Q

where does the cognitive approach sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?

A
  • aimed to develop general laws of behaviour that apply to all however also uses case studies of rare/abnormal instances
92
Q

where does humanism sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?

A
  • idiographic
  • studying the whole person and from their perspective, antiscientific, more concerned with unique experience
93
Q

where does Freud (eg. Little Hans) sit on the Nomo-Idio scale?

A
  • idiographic
  • looked at individual cases to explore theories, Hans - 150 pages of quotes, descriptions, and interpretations (qualitative data)
94
Q

evaluation of a nomothetic approach to research

A

+ more scientific, standardisation and statistical analysis
+ allows psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour
- reductionist, easy to lose the whole person
- overlooks the richness of human experience

95
Q

evaluation of an idiographic approach to research

A

+ complete and global account of individuals
+ may support general laws or act as the basis for further study
- subjective and therefore there is a risk of bias

96
Q
A

psychology (15 decks)

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