attachment Flashcards
(134 cards)
1
Q
what is attachment?
A
A close two-way emotional bond between two individuals, in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security. Attachment in humans takes a few months to develop.
2
Q
caregiver-infant interactions
A
- because infants (0-2) cannot talk, non-verbal methods are vital in communicating and forming an attachment
- these non-verbal methods are important for a child’s social development
- there are two main types of caregiver-infant interactions:
1. reciprocity
2. interactional synchrony
3
Q
reciprocity
A
- caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals, and each elicits a response from the other
- babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult, almost as if they’re taking turns (as people do in a conversation)
- alert phases
- active involvement
4
Q
alert phases
A
- reciprocity
- babies have ‘alert phases’ where they indicate that they are ready for interaction. Mothers respond to these about two-thirds of the time (Feldman and Eidelman 2007)
5
Q
active involvement
A
- reciprocity
- traditionally, babies were seen as passive but recent research suggests both baby and caregiver can initiate interactions and take turns doing so. Researcher Brazelton likens this to a dance
6
Q
interactional synchrony
A
caregiver and baby reflect both actions and emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated way
- Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
- Isabella et al (1989)
7
Q
Meltzoff and Moore
A
- 1977
- conducted the first observational study of Interactional Synchrony and found that infants as young as two to three weeks old imitated specific facial expressions and hand gestures
- an adult model who displayed one of three facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence
- a dummy was placed in the infant’s mouth during the initial display to prevent any response
- following the display, the dummy was removed and the child’s expression was filmed
- they found that there was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model
8
Q
facial expressions used by Meltzoff and Moore
A
tongue protrusion, open mouth, lip protrusion
9
Q
Isabella et al
A
- 1989
- interactional synchrony
- observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony.
- The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-infant attachment.
- They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality infant-mother attachment (the emotional intensity of the relationship)
10
Q
consistency between researchers is called
A
inter-observer reliability
11
Q
strengths and weaknesses of caregiver-infant interactions
A
+ filmed in laboratory conditions - scientific
+ practical applications - understanding attachment and the needs of infants
- hard to know what is happening when observing an infant’s behaviour
- other studies have failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and Moore eg. Koepke et al (1983) found that infants couldn’t distinguish between video recordings of their mother and real interactions
- observations don’t tell us the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity
12
Q
the role of the father - research
A
- Schaffer and Emerson: only 3% of fathers are primary attachments
- Grossman et al: father’s role is more to do with ‘play’ and stimulation where the mothers is about emotional development
- Geiger: father as a ‘playmate’ vs affectionate, nurturing interactions with mother
- Field: any primary caregiver (male or female) takes on the nurturing role
13
Q
Schaffer and Emerson research
A
(1964 - role of the father)
- the majority of babies become attached to their mothers first
- Fathers are mostly seen as a ‘secondary attachment figure’ with mothers usually considered the primary one.
- 75% of infants formed an attachment with their fathers by 18 months - this was characterised by the infant protesting (crying/shouting) when the father walked away.
- Only 3% of fathers are primary attachments.
14
Q
biological reasons for the stereotypical role of the father
A
- “not equipped” to form an intense attachment because they lack the emotional sensitivity that women offer
- female hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviours
- ability to breastfeed and carry the child which aid bonding
15
Q
social/cultural reasons for the stereotypical role of the father
A
- Paternity vs maternity leave length
- general structures such as baby changing facilities make it easier for the woman to form attachments and to be the primary attachment figure.
16
Q
Grossman et al.
A
(2002)
- role of the father
- babies attachments were studied until they were into their teens (looking at parent behaviour and relationships)
- suggests that attachments to fathers is less important than attachment to mothers
- however, also found that the quality of fathers’ play with babies was related to the quality of adolescent attachments
- suggests that fathers have a different role from mothers - one that is more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with emotional development.
17
Q
Geiger
A
(1996)
- the role of the father
- fathers’ play interactions were more exciting in comparison to mothers’ which were more affectionate and nurturing
- suggests that the role of the father is in fact as a playmate and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children
- mother takes on a nurturing role.
18
Q
Tiffany Field
A
(1978)
- filmed 4-month old babies in face-to-face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers, and primary caregiver fathers
- primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers.
- It seems the important thing here is not the gender after-all, but responsiveness.
19
Q
evaluation for the role of the father topic
A
+ lots of supporting research
+ inform parents
+ research has far reaching implications for the economy due to its impact on employment laws and policy
- older research (such as Schaffer and Emerson) may lack temporal validity
- influence of stereotypes
- conflicting evidence
20
Q
stages of attachment - researcher
A
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
- developed the (universal) 4 stages of attachment
21
Q
4 stages of attachment experiment - aims
A
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
- the formation of early attachments, in particular the age at which they develop
- their emotional intensity
- to whom these attachments are made
22
Q
4 stages of attachment experiment - method
A
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
- 60 babies (31 make, 29 female) all from Glasgow, working class families
- the babies and their mothers were visited at home every months for the first year and again at 18 months. It was a longitudinal study
- the researchers also asked the mothers questions about how the infant responded to scenarios such as mother leaving the room (separation anxiety) and the infant’s response to a stranger (unfamiliar adults)
23
Q
4 stages of attachment experiment - findings
A
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
- At about 5-7 months about 50% of the babies showed signs of separation anxiety toward a particular adult (usually the mother)
- attachment tended to be with the caregiver who was most interactive, sensitive to infant signals, and used facial expression. This wasn’t always necessarily the person who spent the most time with them
- by 9 months, 80% had a specific attachment and almost 30% showed multiple attachments
24
Q
4 stages of attachment
A
asocial, indiscriminate, specific, multiple
25
asocial stage
- 1st stage of attachment
- 0-8 weeks
- observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects is fairly similar
- babies do show signs that they prefer to be with other people
- show a preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily comforted by them
26
indiscriminate stage
- 2nd stage of attachment
- 2-7 months
- more obvious and observable social behaviours
- clear preference for being with other people over inanimate objects
- recognise and prefer the company of familiar people
- usually accept cuddles and comfort from anyone
- no separation or stranger anxiety
27
specific attachment stage
- 3rd stage of attachment
- 7-12 months
- classic signs of attachment towards one particular person (stranger anxiety, separation anxiety)
- formed a specific attachment to the primary attachment figure
- this is not necessarily who the baby spends the most time with but the one who offers the most interaction and responds to signals with the most skill
28
multiple attachments stage
- 4th stage of attachment
- 1 year onwards
- form multiple secondary attachments with familiar adults with whom they spend time
- 29% of children formed these within a month of forming primary, specific attachments
29
4 stages of attachment evaluation
- conflicting evidence as to when infant's form attachments (Bowlby 1969 and collectivist cultures)
- Schaffer and Emerson study was longitudinal (higher internal validity as no individual participant variables)
- Schaffer and Emerson has good external validity (higher ecological validity, findings can be generalised further)
- Schaffer and Emerson's study has practical applications (such as daycare/nursery, carers can pre-plan day care to avoid problematic stages)
30
animal studies of attachment
- Harlow (1958) - Rhesus monkeys
- Lorenz (1952) - geese
31
Harlow (1958)
- experimented on Rhesus monkeys to investigate attachment behaviour
- his aim was to investigate whether food or comfort was more important in forming a bond
32
Harlow's method/procedure
THIS IS ONE VARIATION
- two wire mothers, one wrapped in cloth
- 8 infant rhesus monkeys studied for 165 days
- for half, the milk bottle was on the cloth mother, for the rest it was on the wire
- amount of time each infant spent with each mother was measured
- observations were also made of the infant's responses when frightened
33
Harlow's findings
- all 8 monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother
- those who fed from the wire mother spent a very short time with that mother
- when frightened they all clung to the cloth mother and they often kept one foot on the cloth mother when exploring
- this suggests that infants do not develop an attachment to who feeds them but the person offering contact comfort
34
Harlow's follow up
- the monkeys were studied into adulthood to see if early maternal deprivation had affected them permanently
- monkeys were more aggressive and less sociable
- they bred less often than is typical
- as mothers they sometimes neglected their young, others attacked their children, even killing them in some cases
35
critical period discovered by Harlow
- a mother figure had to be introduced to a monkey within 90 days for attachment to be formed
- after this time, attachment was impossible and effects irreversible
36
issues with Harlow's research
- ethical issues (lasting emotional harm, broken attachments, Harlow was aware of the suffering - referring to the wire monkeys as 'iron maidens' after the medieval torture device)
- the faces of the two mothers were different (the cloth mother had a monkey-like face)
- can't generalise from animals to humans (human behaviour and brain are more complex with conscious decisions
37
Dollard and Miller
(1950) proposed that the caregiver-infant attachment can be explained by the learning theory... they called this approach 'cupboard love' because it emphasises the importance as the caregiver as the provider of food.
There are two main explanations here:
1. classical conditioning
2. operant conditioning
38
classical conditioning for attachment
1. UCS (food) -> UCR (pleasure in baby)
2. NS (caregiver) -> no response
3. UCS (food) + NS (caregiver) -> UCR (pleasure)
4. CS (caregiver) -> CR (pleasure
39
operant conditioning - babies crying for comfort
- crying leads to a response from the caregiver - eg. feeding
- as long as the mother provides the correct response, crying is positively reinforced as they get something positive from it (receiving milk, reducing discomfort)
- they baby then cries every time they want feeding
- this reinforcement, however, is a two way process: the caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the baby stops crying
40
primary reinforcers
associated with biological significance such as food, drink, shelter, etc.
41
secondary reinforcers
only fulfilling because they are associated with a primary reinforcer eg. a mother to get food off with food as a primary reinforcer
As food is a primary reinforcer, a child's caregiver is associated with food and thus becomes a secondary reinforcer, producing the attachment.
42
drive and attachment
Drives motivate all our behaviour, hunger can be seen in as a primary drive - its an innate, biological motivator. We are motivated to eat to reduce this hunger. As the caregiver provides food, the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them. Attachment is thus a secondary drive.
43
john bowlby's theory of attachment
John Bowlby (1988)
- rejected the learning theory as an explanation for attachment
- looked at the work of Lorenz and Harlow for ideas and proposed an evolutionary explanation - that attachment was an innate system that gives a survival advantage
- monotropy
- social releasers
- critical period
- internal working model
44
what did bowlby say about the learning theory of attachment
'were it true, an infant of a year or two should take readily to whomever feeds him and this is clearly not the case'
45
monotropy
- bowlby's theory of attachment
- emphasises child's attachment to one particular caregiver
> he believed this attachment is different and more important than others
> he called this person the 'mother' (does not need to be though)
- Bowlby believed that the more time a baby spent with this mother-figure the better
- put forward two principles to clarify this:
1. law of continuity
2. law of accumulated separation
46
law of continuity
- the more constant and predictable care, the better the attachment would be
47
law of accumulated separation
- the effects of every separation from the caregiver adds up
- 'the safest dose is therefore a zero dose' (Bowlby 1975)
48
social releasers
- bowlby's theory of attachment
- he suggested that babies are born with a set of innate 'cute' behaviours like smiling, cooing, and gripping that encourage attention
- he called these social releasers because their purpose is to activate adult social interaction and make an adult attach to the baby
- attachment is a reciprocal process with both mother and baby 'hard-wired' to attach
49
the critical period
- bowlby's theory of attachment
- Bowlby proposed that there is a critical period around 6 months when the infant attachment system is active
- viewed it as a 'sensitive period'
- child is maximally sensitive at 6 months but it can extend up to the age of two
- if an attachment is not formed in this time, a child will find it much harder to form one later
50
internal working model
- bowlby's theory of attachment
- proposes that a child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their primary attachment figure
- serves as a model for what relationships are like
- the internal working model affects the child's later ability to be a parent themselves
51
example of internal working model's manifestation
(bowlby's theory of attachment)
- a child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver will tend to form an expectation that all relationships are loving and reliable and will bring these qualities to future relationships
- a child whose first relationship involves poor treatment will come to expect such treatment from others or treat others in this way
52
evaluation of Bowlby's monotropy
+ the internal working model has been demonstrated to predict patterns of attachment from one gen to the next (Bailey et al.)
+ support for social releasers (Brazelton et al.)
- monotropy is a controversial idea because it has implications for the lifestyle choices of mothers and places responsibility on them for all behaviour (law of accumulated separation)
- monotropy lacks validity/mixed evidence (Schaffer and Emerson)
- internal working model is deterministic
53
Bailey et al.
assessed 99 mothers with one year old babies on the quality of their attachment to their mothers using a standard interview procedure. The researcher also assessed the babies attachment to mothers using observation.
54
Brazelton et al.
(1975) observed mothers and babies during their interactions, reporting interactional synchrony. During that study, primary attachment figures were instructed to ignore baby's signals (to ignore their social releasers eg. smiles). The babies initially showed destress but with continued ignorance they responded by curling up and lying motionless.
55
Who was Mary Ainsworth?
- an American-Canadian developmental psychologist
- researched into different types of attachment in babies using the strange situation. The aim was to see how babies behave under conditions of mild stress and a new situation.
56
what is "the strange situation"
a controlled observation designed to measure the attachment a baby displays towards a caregiver. It takes place in a room with quite controlled conditions (lab conditions) with a two way mirror through which psychologists can observe the behaviour. The procedure has 7 episodes which last three minutes.
57
what behaviours does the strange situation experiment use to judge attachment?
- Proximity seeking - a baby with a good attachment will stay fairly close to the caregiver
- Exploration and secure-base behaviour - good attachment enables a baby to feel confident to explore, using their caregiver as a secure base
- Stranger anxiety - one of the signs of becoming securely attached is a display of anxiety when a stranger approaches
- Separation anxiety - another sign of becoming attached is to protest at separation from caregiver
- Response to reunion - this is looking at behaviour with the caregiver after separation of a short-period of time
58
the strange situation experiment - episode one
- baby is encouraged to explore
- the behaviour assessed is the use of parent as a secure base
59
the strange situation experiment - episode two
- stranger comes in and tries to interact with baby
- the behaviour assessed is stranger anxiety
60
the strange situation experiment - episode three
-the caregiver leaves the baby and stranger together
- the behaviour assessed is separation and stranger anxiety
61
the strange situation experiment - episode four
- the caregiver returns and the stranger leaves
- the behaviour assessed is reunion behaviour
62
the strange situation experiment - episode five
- the caregiver leaves the baby alone
- the behaviour assessed is separation anxiety
63
the strange situation experiment - episode six
- the stranger returns
- stranger anxiety
64
the strange situation experiment - episode seven
- the parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort and reunited with child
- reunion behaviour
65
the strange situation explanation (the 7 episodes)
each episode lasted 3 minutes
1. baby is encouraged to explore
2. stranger comes in and tries to interact with baby
3. the caregiver leaves the baby and stranger together
4. the caregiver returns and the stranger leaves
5. the caregiver leaves the baby alone
6. the stranger returns
7. the parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort and reunited with child
66
what were the findings of the strange situation experiment?
Ainsworth identified three attachment types: insecure avoidant, secure, insecure resistant.
67
insecure-avoidant attachment in the strange situation experiment
20-25%
- explore freely but do not seek or show secure base behaviour
- little or no reaction when their caregiver leaves
- make little effort to make contact when caregiver returns
- show little stranger anxiety
- do not require comfort in reunion
68
secure attachment in the strange situation experiment
60-75%
- explore happily but regularly go back to their caregiver (proximity seeking/secure base behaviour)
- usually show moderate separation distress
- moderate stranger anxiety
- require and accept comfort in reunion
69
insecure-resistant attachment in the strange situation experiment
3%
- seek and resist intimacy and social interaction
- seek greater proximity than others and so explore less
- show huge stranger anxiety
- huge separation distress
- resist comfort when reunited
70
a child who explores freely and doesn't show secure base behaviour, has little reaction when their caregiver leaves and doesn't require comfort when they return would be showing what type of attachment?
insecure-avoidant:
- explore freely but do not seek or show secure base behaviour
- little or no reaction when their caregiver leaves
- make little effort to make contact when caregiver returns
- show little stranger anxiety
- do not require comfort in reunion
71
a child who explores freely but regularly returns to their caregiver, shows moderate separation and stranger anxiety, but also accepts comfort upon the return of their caregiver would be demonstrating what type of attachment?
secure:
- explore happily but regularly go back to their caregiver (proximity seeking/secure base behaviour)
- usually show moderate separation distress
- moderate stranger anxiety
- require and accept comfort in reunion
72
a child who seeks intimacy from and proximity to their caregiver more than others would, shows separation and stranger anxiety, but resists comfort when reunited with their caregiver has what type of attachment?
insecure-resistant:
- seek and resist intimacy and social interaction
- seek greater proximity than others and so explore less
- show huge stranger anxiety
- huge separation distress
- resist comfort when reunited
73
evaluation of the strange situation study
+ predictive validity (secure - better outcomes in terms of school, relationships, friendships where insecure-resistant - worst outcomes like bullying (Kokkinos 2007) and mental health problems in adulthood (Ward et al. 2006).
+ very good inter-observer reliability (Bick et al. (2012) found agreement on attachment type for 94% of tested babies
- may not be a valid measure of attachment across cultural contexts (SS was developed in Britain and US - Takahashi 1990 found it didn't work in Japan)
- overlooked a fourth attachment type (Main and Soloman 1986 - proposed the insecure-disorganised attachment type characterised by lack of consistent patterns in social behaviour)
74
cultural variations
- the ways that different groups of people vary in terms of their social practices and the effects these practices have on development and behaviour
- Individualistic cultures and Collectivist cultures
- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
75
individualistic cultures
value independence with each working to their individual goals (often western cultures)
76
collectivist cultures
value cooperation with each working towards the family or group goals(often Eastern cultures)
77
aim of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) - aim
- to investigate the type of attachment across cultures and to see how the three main attachment styles differ/are similar.
- Is attachment universal or does it culturally vary?
- They also looked at attachment within countries to see if it differed county to county
78
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) - procedure
(cultural variation for attachment)
- analysed data using a meta-analysis method to find proportions of secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure resistant attachment types across a range of countries
- they used 32 studies of attachment where the strange situation had been used
- these 32 studies contained data from 8 countries, 15 studies were conducted in the USA
- there were results for around 1990 children
79
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) - results
secure:
- 75% GB - 50% China
- most common attachment type
insecure-avoidant:
- 35% Germany - 5% Japan
insecure-resistant:
- 29% Israel - 3% GB
- least common
80
most common attachment type and where is it highest/lowest
- secure
- highest in GB (75%)
- lowest in China (50%)
81
why did Japan have the results it did?
- highest for insecure-resistant
- collectivist culture
- Japanese mothers are rarely separated from their children
- mother are highly responsive to their children's needs
- child-rearing appears to place much more value on developing close family relationships
82
least common attachment type and where is it highest/lowest
- insecure-resistant
- highest in Israel (29%
- lowest in GB (5%)
83
why did Germany have the results it did?
- highest for insecure-avoidant
- individualist culture
- society encourages distance between parents and children
- the idea infant is independent and non-clingy, does not make demands but rather obeys commands
- German parents encourage children who can 'stand on their own two feet'
84
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) -conclusions
- the overall consistency shown in secure attachment types leads to conclusion that there may be universal (innate) characteristics that underpin infant and caregiver interactions
- however, child rearing practices and social norms do vary between cultures - hence why the % was not the same for each
- the affects the type of attachment and behaviour shown in the strange situation study
- lots of variation between counties within countries (states in America)
85
experiment that showed the change in prevalence of attachment types
Simonella (2014) conducted a study in Italy to see whether the proportion of babies of different attachment types STILL matches those found in previous studies. They assessed 76 12-month old babies using the Strange Situation. They found 50% were secure and 36% insecure-avoidant. This is a lower rate than in previous studies for secure attachment.
86
Simonella (2014)
(2014) conducted a study in Italy to see whether the proportion of babies of different attachment types STILL matches those found in previous studies. They assessed 76 12-month old babies using the Strange Situation. They found 50% were secure and 36% insecure-avoidant. This is a lower rate than in previous studies for secure attachment.
87
evaluation of cultural variations
+ most studies were conducted by indigenous researchers in Ijzendoorn's meta-analysis EG. Grossman (germany) and Takahashi (Japan) so potential problems in cross-culture research such as language barriers can be avoided
- cultural similarities may be due to similar influences from mass media (Ijzendoorn) rather than biological influences (Bowlby), this could be support by the social learning theory
- Strange Situation is an imposed etic, it was designed by an American researcher on a British theory then used globally eg. Grossman and Grossman suggested that the independence German infant's are taught explains the lack of pleasure on reunion
- Despite making conclusions about cultural differences, the Ijzendoorn study was actually comparing countries. There are also many subcultures within countries so Ijzendoorn likely found more variation within cultures than between because the data was collected in different subcultures eg. (Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 2001)
88
despite making conclusions about cultural differences, the Ijzendoorn study...'
the Ijzendoorn study was actually comparing countries. There are also many subcultures within countries so Ijzendoorn likely found more variation within cultures than between because the data was collected in different subcultures eg. one Tokyo study of attachment found similar distributions of attachment types to in Western studies yet a more rural sample showed an over-representation of insecure-resistant individuals (Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 2001)
89
separation vs deprivation
Separation - short lived, infrequent separations
deprivation - prolonged, lots of separations can add up to deprivation - 'Separation from a primary attachment figure that is prolonged and results in a lack of emotional care.' (Bowlby)
90
how does bowlby describe maternal deprivation deprivation (quote)
'Separation from a primary attachment figure that is prolonged and results in a lack of emotional care.' - Bowlby
91
the critical period (in terms of maternal deprivation)
- six months to 2-2.5 years (but a risk up to 5 years)
- if a child is separated from their mother during the critical period (and if no suitable substitute care is put in place), and so deprived of her emotional care, then Bowlby believed psychological damage was inevitable.
92
long-term effects of maternal deprivation
- delinquency (behavioural problems in adolescence)
- reduced intelligence (IQ)
- depression
- aggression
- difficulty forming relationships
- impact on emotional development/affectionless psychopathy (lack of empathy and guilt)
93
Bifulco et al. (maternal deprivation)
(1992)
- studied 250 women who had lost mothers, through separation or death, before they were 17
- they found that loss of their mother doubles the risk of depressive and anxiety disorders in adult women
- the rate of depression was highest in women whose mothers had died before the child reached the age of 6
> those who were separated during the critical period had worse long-term effects
94
Goldfarb (maternal deprivation)
(1947)
- compared two groups of children in an orphanage
- one group of 15 stayed in an orphanage a few months then was fostered
- the second group remained in the orphanage until they were 2 or 3 years old.
- tested at 12 years old, the second group scored worse on IQ tests, were more aggressive, and were not as socially advanced
> those who remained in the orphanage for the critical period, had more serve long-term effects such as aggression
95
Hodges and Tilzard (maternal deprivation)
(1989)
- studied children in foster care ranging from 4 months to 16 years
- the children were well cared for in their institutions, but attachments were discouraged
- it was found that these children had problems forming relationships outside the home
> future relationships can be impacted - internal working model is important
96
robertson and robertson (maternal deprivation)
(1971)
- mothers were in hospital, the children stayed with Joyce Robertson (a foster carer) who provided high quality substitute mothering, arranged visits to the hospital, and allowed the children to take objects from home which helped maintain emotional consistency
- children coped well with the separation (ate and slept well) and welcomed their parents joyously on return
> severe long-term effects can be avoided if quality substitute care is put in place
97
research for maternal deprivation
Bifulco et al. (1992)
- critical period vs non-critical period separation
Goldfarb (1947)
- ages in orphanage (critical period)
Hodges and Tizard (1989)
- internal working model and impact on future relationships
Robertson and Robertson (1971)
- good substitute care
98
aim of Bowlby's 44 thieves study
- to investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation, whether delinquents have suffered deprivation
99
procedure of Bowlby's 44 thieves study
- an opportunity sample of 88 children were selected from the clinic where Bowlby worked
- 44 of these were juvenile thieves and had been referred to him due to stealing
- he also selected another group of 44 children to act as 'controls' (referred for emotional problems, had not yet committed crime)
- each child had their IQ and emotional attitudes tested by a psychologist
- a social worker interviewed a parent to record details of the child's early life
- a psychiatrist (Bowlby) then conducted an initial interview with the child and accompanying parent
100
findings of Bowlby's 44 thieves study
- 14 of the 44 thieves could be described as 'affectionless psychopaths'
- 12 of these had experienced long separations from their mothers in the first 2 years of life
- only 2 of the control group had experienced long separations
101
conclusions of Bowlby's 44 thieves study
- maternal deprivation in the child's early life caused permanent emotional damage
- diagnosed this as a condition and called it 'Affectionless Psychopathy', which he said involved a lack of emotional development, lack of concern for others, lack of guilty, inability to form meaningful and lasting relationships
102
criticisms of Bowlby's 44 thieves study
- correlation between psychopathy and separation (not necessarily causation)
- retrospective data (hard to accurately recall separations and impact)
- they're all young - do we know this will continue into later life (does he need a larger sample size?)
- the control group still has emotional issues
- researching in support of his own theory - researcher bias
103
strengths of the maternal-deprivation theory
+ Bowlby's 44 Thieves study (supports the link between maternal deprivation and permanent emotional damage)
+ practical applications to parents visiting children in hospitals, his research led to changes allowing visits
+ practical applications within social care (the importance of good quality substitute attachments)
104
limitations of the maternal-deprivation theory
- Bowlby's 44 thieves study faces criticism (it does not prove causation only correlation, it is all retrospective data, because they were all juvenile it cannot be concluded that their symptoms were permanent, researcher bias)
- Czech Twins Case Study showed that long-term effects are not permanent and that attachments formed later in life could contribute to recovery (evidence against the 'critical period')
> however this research could be evidence for the effects of trauma not the effects of deprivation
- Bowlby may have confused deprivation and privation, many of the studies he used eg. Goldfarb studied children that may have been experiencing privation
- war-orphan supporting research is poor because the were traumatised as well as deprived (this is the same for children in poor-quality orphanages or foster care)
105
czech twins case study (1976)
- identical twins born in 1960
- lost their mother shortly after birth and were cared for by a social agency for a year then fostered by a maternal aunt for 6 months
- their development was normal (good quality substitute care)
- father remarried and they went on to live with him and his new wife however she was abusive towards them (banishing them to the cellar for the next 5.5 years and beating them) - the father was absent
- at the age of 7 the twins were dwarfed in stature, lacking in speech, suffering from rickets, and did not understand the meaning of pictures. The doctors who examined them confidently predicted permanent physical and mental problems
- removed from their parents, they underwent a programme of physical remediation and entered a school for children with learning disabilities
- the boys were then legally adopted by an exceptionally dedicated woman
- they caught up with age peers and achieved emotional and intellectual normality (both went on to technical school and further education, they both married and had children)
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Romanian orphans crisis (basic info)
- Decree 770, signed in 1967, restricted abortion and contraception in an attempt to grow the Romanian population
- the number of births had significantly decreased after the 1950s, reaching its lowest recorded level in 1966.
- abortion and contraception were illegal except for a few exceptions including women who had already had 4 children (this was then changed to 5)
- there was a huge baby boom due to the decree and - as the children got older - their needs were not properly met due to lack of infrastructure and resources, many children were put in orphanages as their parents couldn't look after them
- mortality among pregnant women became the highest of europe and childbed mortality increased to more than ten times that of romania's neighbours
- the decree was abolished 26 december 1989
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institutionalisation definition
the effects of spending long periods of time in an institution eg. an orphanage. In such places there is often very little emotional care provided. In attachment we are interested in the effects of institutional care on children's attachment and development.
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orphan definition
children placed in care because their parents cannot look after them (they have either died or abandoned them permanently)
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Rutter et al. aim
ERA (English and Romanian Adoptee study)
- to investigate the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions
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ERA (rutter et al.) procedure
- Michael Rutter and collages (2011) have followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted by families in the UK:
- 58 babies were adopted before 6 months old
- 59 between 6-24 months
- 48 between 2-4 years old
- physical, cognitive, and emotional development was assessed at ages 4, 6, 11, 15, and 22-25 years.
- A group of 52 children from the UK adopted around the same time have served as a control group
- natural, longitudinal study
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what ages were the 165 romanian orphans studied by Rutter et al.
- 58 babies were adopted before 6 months old
- 59 between 6-24 months
- 48 between 2-4 years old
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ERA (rutter et al.) findings
- when they first arrived, half of the adoptees showed signs of delayed intellectual development and the majority were severely undernourished
- at age 11 the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery that were related to their age of adoption
- the mean IQ's were:
before 6 months was 102
86 for those adopted between six months and 2 years
77 for those adopted after 2 years
- these differences remained at age 16 (Beckett et al. 2010)
- children adopted after they were six months showed signs of disinhibited attachment. In contrast, those adopted before six months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment
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the mean IQs for the children in the ERA study
- before 6 months was 102
- 86 for those adopted between six months and 2 years
- 77 for those adopted after 2 years
- these differences remained at age 16 (Beckett et al. 2010)
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ERA - disinhibited attachment
children adopted after they were six months showed signs of disinhibited attachment (symptoms include attention-seeking, clinginess, and social behaviour directed indiscriminately towards all adults - familiar and unfamiliar). In contrast, those adopted before six months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment
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conclusions of the ERA (rutter et al.) study
- long-term consequences may be less severe that once thought if children have the opportunity to form attachments
- when children don't form attachments, the consequences are likely to be severe
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bucharest early intervention study
- Charles Zeanah (2005) assessed attachment in 95 children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care (90% on average).
- They were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution
- their attachment type was measured using the strange situation. In addition to this, carers were asked about their social behaviour (clinginess, attention-seeking, etc.)
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findings of the bucharest early intervention study
(Charles Zeanah, 2005)
- They found 74% of the control group came out as securely attached in the strange situation but only 19% of the institutionalised group were securely attached with 65% being classed as 'disorganized attachment'.
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physical underdevelopment (impacts of institutionalisation)
- children who have experienced a lack of emotional care may show physical underdevelopment as well as emotional problems eg. they may be physically small
- the production of growth hormones is affected by the severe emotional disturbance resulting in physical underdevelopment ('deprivation dwarfism')
- Gardner (1972): a girl fed through a tube, her mum wouldn't cuddle her for fear of dislodging the tube, at 8 months old she was withdrawn and physically stunted and was admitted to hospital, the attention in hospital allowed her to thrive and she recovered
- This implies that lack of emotional care could affect sleep and thus growth hormones causing underdevelopment
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low IQ (impacts of institutionalisation)
The Rutter et al. (ERA) research:
- the orphans had low IQ when they arrived in Britain
- However the children adopted before they were 6 months old caught up with the control group (by the age of 4)
- damage to IQ as a result of institutionalisation can be recovered providing adoption takes place before the age of 6 months
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disinhibited attachment (impacts of institutionalisation)
Children with disinhibited attachment are equally friendly and affectionate towards people they know well or strangers they have just met. They may also be attention seeking.
Disinhibited attachment develops as an adaption of living with multiple caregivers during early years of life. In institutions, like the ones in Romania, a child may have 50 carers, but doesn't spend enough time with any of them to form a specific attachment.
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poor parenting (impacts of institutionalisation)
Harlow showed that monkeys raised with a surrogate mother went on to become poor parents. This is supported by Quinton et al. (1984):
- 50 women who had been raised in institutions were compared with 50 women raised at home
- ex-institutionalised women were finding it hard being parents 20 years later
- more of the children had spent time in care than the children of the non-institutionalised women
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evaluation of the romanian orphans study and effects of institutionalisation
+ natural nature of the experiment means it has high ecological validity and mundane realism
+ practical applications (results led to improvements in institutional care with staff assigned to specific children, this means attachment is more likely to be normal)
- low external validity, can't generalise (the conditions were not typical so the study cannot be applied to better quality institutional care)
- socially sensitive (the results may have impacts on the groups studied, the info was published while they were still growing up, self-fulfilling prophecy idea - however no research has shown this to be the case and the benefits were huge)
- confounding variables (because the experiment was natural it wasn't possible to randomly allocate the orphans to different conditions)
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the role of the internal working model and attachment types (impact of early attachment on later relationships)
Bowlby suggested that an infant's first relationship with their primary attachment figure leads to a mental representation of this relationship. This internal working model acts as a template for future childhood and adult relationships. The quality of an infant's first attachment is crucial because this template will powerfully affect the nature of their future relationships.
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what might a securely attached child be like in later relationships?
- loving and reliable first relationship, they assume this is how all should be
- they will seek out functional relationships (not too uninvolved or too close)
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what might an insecure-avoidant attached child be like in later relationships?
- won't be too involved or emotionally close in later attachments
- may avoid physical intimacy or affection
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what might an insecure-resistant attached child be like in later relationships?
- they may be controlling or argumentative in later relationships
- possibly clingy and overbearing
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relationships in childhood (attachment types)
- attachment type is associated with the quality of peer relationships in childhood
- securely attached children have the best quality childhood friendships whereas insecurely attached have later friendship difficulties (Kerns, 1994)
- Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) found that insecure-avoidant infants are most likely to be the victims of bullying while insecure-resistant infants are more likely to be bullies (a questionnaire on 196 children aged 7-11 from London)
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Myron-Wilson and Smith
(1998) found that insecure-avoidant infants are most likely to be the victims of bullying while insecure-resistant infants are more likely to be bullies (a questionnaire on 196 children aged 7-11 from London)
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attachment types in parenting
Secure - functional relationships with a balance of distance and closeness
Insecure-Avoidant - expecting over-independence from their children, provide them with too much space and freedom, making them "fend for themselves"
Insecure-Resistant - overbearing parent, coddling, doesn't allow for independence
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attachment type and mental health
- The lack of an attachment during the critical period would result in a ack of an internal working model
- children with attachment disorder have no preferred attachment figure, an inability to interact properly, severe neglect, or frequent change of caregivers
- recently attachment disorder has been added to the DSM so is now recognised as a disorder - there are two types: reactive attachment disorder (RAD) - the new term for affectionless psychopathy - and disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED)
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Hazen and Shaver - aim and procedure
(1987)
Aim:
to investigate the impact of early attachments on later adult behaviour
Procedure:
- Hazen and Shaver placed the "love quiz" ont he rocky mountain news
- It had three sections:
1. it asked questions about current/most important attachment
2. the questionnaire also asked about attitudes towards love (an assessment of the internal working model) and amount of partners
3. their attachment types and history of attachment
- they analysed 620 responses: 205 men and 415 women
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Hazen and Shaver - findings
(1987)
- attachment types were similar to that found in infancy:
56% were insecurely attached
25% insecure-avoidant
19% insecure-resistant
Those who had secure attachments were most likely to have good, trusting, longer lasting romantic relationships (average 10 years). They were able to accept and support their partner despite faults. The avoidant responses tended to reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy. Avoidant and resistant had shorter relationships (A-6, R-5 years). Secure attachment (who had better romantic relationships) tended to also have a more positive internal working model.
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Hazen and Shaver - conclusion
Early attachments do affect later relationships - childhood relationships are reflected in adult relationships. Those with secure attachments were more likely to have longer, healthier relationships
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evaluation of early attachments (their influence on later relationships)
+ research such as Hazen and Shaver supports the idea that early experiences affect later adult relationships
+ Harlow's research supports the theory
- low temporal validity and reductionist in terms of options (neglects the possibility of no relationship between parents, etc.) - it's also static, attachment type may change
- deterministic, could lead to self-fulfilling prophecy
- self-report method: social desirability bias, retrospective data, depends on honest, realistic views of the self
- opposing research so reduced reliability - Zimmerman (2000) found that there was very little relationship between quality of infant and adolescent attachment
- correlational links not experimental; perhaps innate temperament and tendencies causes parents to parent differently and therefore different attachments
