Data Acquisition Approach l

Question 1

Importance of data

Answer 1

• basis of all scientific research to answer a proposed research problem

Question 2

Primary data

Answer 2

• collected by an investigator specifically for the purpose of answering his/her research question

Question 3

Secondary data (2)

Answer 3

• existing data

- collected for other purposes which an investigator employs to answer his/her research question

Question 4

Primary vs Secondary data (collection purpose)

Answer 4

Primary data
- specifically for the research question at hand

Secondary data
- for other purposes but may be applicable to your study question

Question 5

Primary vs Secondary data (data variables)

Answer 5

Primary data
- exact data variables

Secondary data
- limited to existing data variables collected

Question 6

Primary vs Secondary data (missing data)

Answer 6

Primary data
- can be minimised as data collection process is controlled by researcher

Secondary data
- higher chance of missing data since actual data collection is not within researcher’s control

Question 7

Primary vs Secondary data (representation of target population)

Answer 7

Primary data
- less representative of target population

Secondary data
- more representative & generalisable by increasing data from other studies

Question 8

Primary vs Secondary data (collection process)

Answer 8

Primary data
- researcher highly involved

Secondary data
- rapid & easy

Question 9

Primary vs Secondary data (collection cost)

Answer 9

Primary data
- costly

Secondary data
- less costly but may need payment to access data

Question 10

Primary vs Secondary data (collection time)

Answer 10

Primary data
- time consuming

Secondary data
- less time consuming

Question 11

Primary data collection methods (3)

Answer 11

1. Experimental method
   eg lab-based experiment, controlled trials
2. Observation method
   - participative
   - non-participative
3. Survey method
   - in-depth interview
   - focus group discussion
   - questionnaire

Question 12

Observation method = Observational studies?

Answer 12

No.
Observation method is a type of data collection process
Observational studies is a type of study design

Question 13

Experimental method process (2)

Answer 13

• used to test a hypothesis by seeking to establish a causal relationship between dependent & independent variables
• involves manipulation of independent variables while keeping all other variables constant & measure the effect on the dependent variable

Question 14

Example of data collection form for controlled trial

Answer 14

Case Report Form (CRF)

Question 15

Types of Observation method (2)

Answer 15

1. Non-participant observation

2. Participant observation

Question 16

Non-participant observation (2)

Answer 16

• without participating in the observed activities

- outsider perspective

Question 17

Participant observation (2)

Answer 17

• observe through participation in activities of study subjects
• insider perspective

Question 18

Observation Method Strengths (3)

Answer 18

1. Independent of subject’s willingness to respond
   - less demanding of subjects’ active cooperation compared to survey method
   - can gather more data
2. Useful if not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings
3. Increase reliability of data collected
   - reduce reporting bias as you directly see what people do

Question 19

Observation Method Limitations (5)

Answer 19

1. Time consuming
2. Unable to determine the reason for the observed behaviours
3. Requires skilled observers
   - ensure minimal subjectivity
4. Researchers need to refrain from interpretation
   - bias in recording data
5. Hawthorne effect / Observer effect
   - behaviour change when they are aware that they are being observed

Question 20

Hawthorne effect definition & how to overcome it?

Answer 20

• phenomenon which study subjects change their behaviours due to the awareness of being observed
• overcome by not telling subjects the details of the study procedures

Question 21

Observation method considerations (3)

Answer 21

• what to observe
• how to record observations
• how to ensure accuracy of observations

Question 22

Types of hand-written data collection forms for observation method (3)

Answer 22

1. Recording sheet & checklist
   - short structured questions
2. Observation guide
   - guiding questions for description of observations
3. Field notes
   - blank piece of paper to fill up

Question 23

Types of Survey methods (3)

Answer 23

1. In-depth interview
2. Focus group discussion
3. Questionnaire

Question 24

In-depth interview (survey method)

Answer 24

1-1 interview

Question 25

Strengths of In-depth interview (3)

survey method

Answer 25

1. Gains information on people’s personal experience, stories, feelings etc
   - 1-1 more bond
2. Useful for sensitive topics
3. Gains in-depth information

Question 26

Limitations of In-depth interview (5)

survey method

Answer 26

1. Time consuming
2. Susceptible to interviewer bias
   - through the ways of asking
3. Require rapport building, usage of motivational probes, listen & react to interviewees (active listening)
   - so that interviewees are more willing to share their own personal experience, stories etc
4. Need to be flexibility to change topic following interviewee’s story
   - craft questions accordingly to the response
5. A lot of transcription

Question 27

**

Approach to conduct in-depth interview (4)

Answer 27

• *
• use semi-structured interview guide to prompt data collection
• establish rapport
• ask questions in an open & empathic way
• motivate interviewee by probing

Question 28

Tools to record in-depth & focus group discussions (4)

Answer 28

1. Manual note-taking
2. Audio recording
3. Video recording
4. Combination of the above

Question 29

Discussion guide for

• In-depth Interview
• Focus Group Discussion

Answer 29

1. Introduction
2. Broad opening questions
   - build rapport
   - factual questions
3. Specific questions
   - opinions
4. Closing questions

Question 30

Considerations of composition of focus group
& why is it important?

(2)

Answer 30

1. Homogeneity among participants
   - more likely to share if participants are similar
2. Level of familiarity among participants
   - strangers > friends
   - anonymity may encourage participants to contribute more freely to the discussion

Question 31

Types of Focus Group Discussion (2)

Answer 31

1. Moderator-Dominated discussion
2. Interactive Group discussion
   - more free sharing among participants themselves

Question 32

Focus Group Discussion Strengths (4)

Answer 32

1. Large volume of information
   - more participants are recruited
2. Identify a wide range of views
3. Identify new & unanticipated issues
4. Useful for exploratory, explanatory & evaluative research
   - cos broader perspective

Question 33

Focus Group Discussion Limitations (8)

Answer 33

1. Susceptible to interviewer bias
   - for in-depth interview also
2. Discussion can be dominated or side tracked
3. Requires skilled moderator to conduct the group & manage group dynamics
4. Less confidential
5. Influence of social pressure
   - within group
6. Responses not independent
7. Does not provide valid information at individual level
   - group discussion
8. Information not representative of other groups
   - can recruit participants to better represent target population

Question 34

Questionnaire definition & purpose (2)

Answer 34

• questions printed or types in a definite order on a form or set of forms
• purpose of seeking specific information from respondents

Question 35

When are questionnaires useful? (3)

Answer 35

1. Limited resources & require data from many people
   - cos it is less expensive to conduct
2. Gather data about knowledge, beliefs & attitudes
3. To protect the privacy of participants
   - can be done individually
   - person-led > telephone > mail

Question 36

Factors affecting the quality of data collected using questionnaires (2)

Answer 36

1. Questionnaire construction
   - quality & appropriateness of questionnaire used
2. Modes of administration
   - moderator/interviewer
   - self administration

Question 37

Importance of pilot-testing data collection method (2)

Answer 37

• gather feedbacks from different groups of people who will be potentially recruited in the data collection process
• improve on the data collection method accordingly

Question 38

Types of data collection (4)

Answer 38

1. Manual hand-taking notes
2. Audio recordings
3. Video recordings
4. Combination of the above