Culture and identity Flashcards
Strinati - division between cultures
Postmodernist - argues the distinction between these cultures is disappearing:
- modern tech, mass markets, global tourism enables all forms of culture to be consumed by all
- high culture has become commercialised and popular eg. art galleries
People can pick ‘n’ mix between all types of culture
- you can no longer distinguish between culture and reality - cultural products are a part of reality not just an expression of it
Individual/personal identity
Woodward - how individuals define themselves and how they’re different from others.
Their understanding of their self-concept or their ‘inner me’ or ‘I’ (Mead)
Social identity
Defines people in relation to social groups they belong to and how they differ from other groups eg. men, women, ethnic groups
Collective identity
The shared identity of a group of people, involves elements of choice - choose to identify with a group and adopt identity associated with it eg. goth, feminist, rock music fan
Multiple identities
When an individual is able to assume a range of different identities. These identities may combine. Eg. class, gender, ethnicity, age.
Individuals may assert different ‘selves’ in different environments eg. at home - good Muslim, at school - good student
Stigmatised or spoiled identities
Goffman - Identities that are in some way undesirable or demeaning, which excludes those with these identities from full acceptance in society. Eg. disabled people
May lead to impression management to present an alternative impression but fails
Parsons view on primary socialisation
- beneficial in turning children into social beings by imitating behaviour and roles of parents
- paticularistic norms passed on though language, learning how to act appropriately, right and wrong
- mothers play expressive role (caregivers) and fathers play the instrumental role (breadwinners)
Marxist view on primary socialisation
values taught in the family reflect those of the ruling-class, turning them into passive conformists who accept the inequalities in society
Durkheim view of education as form of secondary socialisation
Schools act as a ‘society in miniature’ - a small scale version of society that prepares children for the wider adult society
Parsons view of education as a form of secondary socialisation
Schools form a bridge between the particularistic values of the family and the universalistic values of the rest of society through the hidden and formal curriculum
Althusser view of religion and socialisation
- part of ruling class culture to legitimise their power.
- Ideological state apparatus that spreads dominant ideology and manufactures hegemony - acceptance that their positions are unchangeable. It cushions the pain of exploitation
Marx view on culture
- ruling class control production and have influence on cultural norms which reflect ruling class
- creates a false consciousness eg. WC don’t challenge meritocracy as they believe they just don’t have the skills to move up the class system
- people don’t challenge employment as they’re being paid and can afford goods in mass culture so don’t realise they’re being exploited
Frankfurt school view on culture
- culture of mass consumption has been created - promoting false needs, preventing the revolting that Marx suggested
- commodity fetishism - ownership of products gives people status - capitalism is solution and source of people’s issues
- buying products allows people to justify their exploitation because they think they’re benefiting themselves
evaluation of marxist view on culture
- marxist ideas central to development of cultures of resistance
- assumes individuals are passive and no one resists the impact of culture (subcultures)
- folk cultures still exist despite dominance of mass culture
hegemonic gender identity
- come from stereotypes which are so dominant that it makes it difficult for individuals to assert alternative gender identities.
- They present the typical or ‘ideal’ gender characteristics which most men or women feel pressure to conform to
Oakley 4 processes for gender identity
- manipulation - the way they’re dressed, played with
- verbal appellations - ‘you’re such a brave boy’ ‘ such a sweet girl’ ‘not lady-like’
- Differential activity exposure - encouraged to imitate the different activities carried out by mother and father
Parsons view of gender socialisation
Father - instrumental role - breadwinner, discipline etc
- boys socialised into this but often incompletely as fathers absent at work lots of childhood
Mother - expressive role - caring and nurturing
- girls socialised into this
Connell - gender socialisation
- boys socialised into hegemonic masculinity emphasising being tough and aggressive
- boys emotionally less available - socialised to be this way from fathers and agents of secondary socialisation eg. peers, media (heroes etc.)
- Others reject hegmonic form of masculinity and accept more environmental approach valuing intellect over aggression
Wilkinson - gender socialisation
Genderquake - changes in ways girls are socialised as a result of the second wave of feminism
- focused more on academic achievement and careers than expressive role
- boys socialisation is less certain and crisis of masculinity occurs where they don’t know what is socially acceptable
how are gender identities passed on in school?
- teacher attitudes - encouraging boys into STEM, careers advice, disciplining disruptive behaviour differently
- Francis - subject choice - girls encouraged into traditionally female subjects eg. english
- hidden curriculum
Wolf - how are gender identities passed on by media?
media promotes a ‘beauty myth’ that women should be assessed in terms of their appearance and are often shown in a limited no. of stereotypical roles eg. ‘sex objects’ appealing to men, emotional, lovers, mothers etc.
(feminist)
how are female identities changing (liberal feminists)?
more positive role models of strong women, growing equality eg. outperforming men in school, wider range of roles, marriage in decline, emergence of ‘ladettes’
how are male identities changing?
- crisis of masculinity - men’s dominant position is threatened by the rise of women’s equality and power and independent incomes have weakened male power
- ‘new men’ - more caring, sharing, gentle, emotional
- male bodies used as sex objects
- more concerned with dress and appearance
evaluation of gender socialisation
- ethnicity and cultural factors - not all cultures have hegemonic view on gender identity but some have very distinct roles
- gender fluidity in 21st century creates spectrum of gender identities
- agents of secondary socialisation can reinforce or reject traditional forms of socialisation
Marxist feminist view on culture
- capitalism is key motivator for inequality - women oppresses by class and gender
- consumption targeted at women eg. beauty industries operate through exploitation of women - creating insecurities to capitalise on
Radical feminist view on culture
- organisation of cultural norms and values are designed to disadvantage women
- social institutions eg. family, religion, media all based on male interests
- women expected to adopt male characteristics to succeed in these institutions - defines masculinity as more powerful
Anwar - ethnicity socialisation
- south asian parents socialise their children to have collective ideals of family values eg. honour, loyalty, support
- allows children to grow up with a sense of where they come from and who they are
Hill - ethnicity
- studied Asian community in Leicester
- there is generational conflict between ethnic minority parents and children
- parents socialise children into minority ethnicity norms and values which clash with those children learn in school that are more ‘Western’
Sewell - ethnic identity
- media influences black boys to join gang-culture through representations
- mainstream media is a way of passing on stereotypes that may become a part of someone’s identity or what the believe they should do
role of secondary socialisation on ethnic identities
- media, education and employment representations of ethnic groups influence an individuals sense of identity - can display negative stereotypes
- could lead to ethnic minorities feeling marginalised and ostracised in society
- hybrid identities form to counter radicalised abuse or to feel integrated
Ball - education and ethnic identities
- ethnocentric curriculum focuses on achievements of white British historical figures and writers
- could lead to ethnic minorities feeling marginalised and ostracised in society
Van Dijk - media and ethnic identities
- symbolic annihilation of ethnic cultures in media representations
- ethnic groups seen as a threat to existing culture
Hall - ethnic identities
- negative stereotyping in wider society causes some ethnic groups to retreat from the rest of society and form subcultures
- ethnic minorities form hybrid identities combining elements of their minority ethnic culture with Western culture
evaluations of ethnicity and identity - how are they changing?
- changing representations of ethnic groups in media and education offer greater diversity
- younger generations adopt a pick and mix approach to their own ethnic identity
Biggs - age and identity
- negative stereotypes of old age in the media
- presented as a problem or being difficult
they can lead to old age being a stigmatised identity - stereotypes focus on economic inactivity of old people - dependent and burden
Lambert - media on age and gender
- older men portrayed as successful and powerful whereas older women are not
- eg. newsreader pairings usually older man and younger woman
- could make older women feel less capable while it would have less of an effect on older men
what effect has the ‘third age’ had on perceptions of old people?
- more time, financial power and ability to have leisure - reserved for middle class old people
- increased consumption and power of ‘grey pound’ lead to third age
Marhankova - active ageing
greater economic freedom and choice has led to increased independence and leisure time
effects of being working class on old age
- health and poverty issues have effect on how individuals are perceived and how they view themselves
- Rowntree Foundation - in 2023 over 2 million pensioners living in poverty - shapes view of elderly
marxists - old age and identity
- not working - seen as socially unuseful - capitalist ideology prioritises work
- children and old people seen as dependent - don’t work, adults seen as independent - do work
- stigmatisms revolve around whether you are contributing to the capitalist society
effects of disability on old age
- 1 in 3 over 65s have some form of disability, 60% over 80s
- impacts identity - disability is stigmatised form of identity that impacts physical and mental health
Shakespeare - disability
- argues ‘disability’ is a label imposed upon others that implies they are different and can become master status
- ‘impairment’ is more suitable word - less likely to be categorised as being in need of assistance
- those with impairments are seen as worthy of pity due to stereotypes in the media
Barnes - disability
- negative stereotypes in media eg. villains, sexually abnormal, pitiful and burden to able-bodied characters
- a disability becomes a handicap when it is socialised into being understood as a disadvantage
biomedical models of disability
- impairment is a deficiency and becomes the dominant part of a person’s identity
- leads to exclusion from certain activities
- suggests inability to lead a life that an able-bodied person can
- doesn’t look for solutions
- Scott - can lead to learned helplessness
social models of disability
- structural factors of society creates barriers for those with impairments
- social solutions - eg. creating accessible entrances to shops
how can culture impact views of disability?
- socially progressive nations more accepting and less judgemental
- traditional societies view impairment in negative way - rejecting those unable to work
how can gender link to disability?
women more likely to be treated for mental health conditions, less diagnosis of male psychological issues - impacts identity
Anderson - nationality and identity
and evaluation
- nationalism has replaced religion is giving individuals a sense of identity eg. USA exceptionalism has become like a religion
- However UK census reports increase from 20% to 50% identifying as British rather than by nations
Schudson - how does secondary socialisation socialise people into national identities?
- education - learning about achivements of nation through history and cultural practices and traditions through day to day life in school
- Media - sporting event, royal weddings, national celebrations
- these reaffirm commitment to national identity and give a sense of belonging to something bigger than themselves
how does people interpreting symbols of national identities differ?
- eg. flags, currency, statues, food, music, rituals
- some have a dual meaning - can be seen as embracing colonial times and empires and a sign of oppression
- eg. statue of Edward Culston thrown into river during BLM protests (symbol of slave trade)
- meanings of symbols are passed through generations
impact of globalisation on national identity
Decreased national identities:
- globalisation has led to multiple hybrid identities in one nation or Westernised identities
- created a global culture - eroding national cultures
Increased national identities:
- people meet more people of other nationalities so national identity has gained significance
- Brexit vote and moral panics in media over immigration have led to enhanced national identities
Durkheim view on nationality and identity
- important in social cohesion - socialised into nation’s history that makes them feel a part of something bigger
Bellah - nationality and identity
- civil religion - interplay of nationalism and religion
- Eg. ‘God bless America’
- religion can become a part of a national identity
characteristics of subcultures
- resistance to established norms and values set by middle aged and middle class
- alternate status hierarchy based on appearance and lifestyle rather than education and career
functionalists view on subcultures - Cohen
- form as result to status frustration - blocked opportunities to gain status in wider society
- look to peers for approval and status as it can’t be awarded by conventional means
- many act in deviant ways and adopt norms in conflict with value consensus
Marxist view on subcultures - Hall and Jefferson
- resistance to dominant ideologies of capitalism
- young people have awareness and choose to reject dominant ideology
- Eg. punk developed out of resistance to capitalist ideals and embraces ideas of political anarchy
Marxist view on subcultures - Hebdige
- use of bricolage reflects working class roots and desire for creativity
- re-purposing ordinary items and giving them new meanings, turning them into symbols of defiance
- however, these symbols are often commodified by mainstream culture, stripping them of their original meaning and turning them into marketable products
- symbolic resistance rather than practical
- eg. punk - safety pins etc.
rave - high-vis jackets
feminist view on subcultures - McRobbie and Garber
- socialisation of girls into passive roles and excessive control from parents led to girls developing a ‘bedroom culture’
- still relevant today but rather than physically in bedrooms, more focused on communication rather than active pursuits
feminist view on subcultures - Hollands
- girls now more involved in youth subcultures since late 20th century
- 3rd wave feminism
- eg. ladettes
postmodernist view on subcultures - Bennet
- no longer bound by conformity to group’s norms and values but loosely connected by common interests
- neo-tribalism eg. rave culture - people come together to celebrate specific part of personality and return to normal lives after
postmoderist view on subcultures - hybrid identities
- young people influenced by other cultures and ideas and combine different elements of these cultures to create their own norms and values
- society more fragmented leaving individuals to construct their own identities by picking and mixing different options available to them
how has work decreased as a source of identity?
- in the past, people were ascribed their role as jobs were passed down through the family
- functionalists - now people perform achieved roles through meritocracy
- jobs identify an individual rather than their whole family
- people are now more likely to do several different jobs in their life - people now no longer know exactly what they’re going to do when they leave school
- people now acquire transferable skills to be used in a range of occupations
- identity has shifted from production to consumption
postmodernists - consumption and identity
- people buying products is them choosing to express that identity through their consumption
- makes identity increasingly one of choice
Bauman - consumption and identity
- advertised products are not simply about selling a product, they have symbolic significance
- label more important than the product itself - illustrates identity
- when people buy products, they are buying into a particular lifestyle to establish an identity
- you can choose and change your identity whenever you choose
criticism of postmodernist view on consumption and identity
marxist/neomarxist
- identity is not completely out of choice
- eg. buying a car to express that you’re wealthy is not a choice everyone can make - class is still structural factor
- you can only make certain choices on what to consume depending on how much money you have
Rojek view on leisure and identity
- we live in a ‘leisure culture’
- what people do outside work identifies them eg. football fans, where people go on holiday, exercise
- there are ways in which we choose our identity now rather than being born into it or channelled into it by social structures
Clarke and Critcher leisure and identity
- neomarxists - capitalist system creates leisure industry and controls leisure
- individuals do not have the power or choice to determine their leisure becuase capitalism promotes and invests in certain ‘acceptable’ and profitable leisure pursuits
- keep workers healthy and are passive and unquestioning
- leisure is part of capitalist hegemony
hyperglobalist view on globalisation
- globalisation is a positive thing
- people are increasingly knowledgeable and accepting of other cultures around the world
- local cultures are being eroded for the greater good of the global economy - we are moving towards a homogenous global culture
- Freidman - there is a ‘golden straight jacket’ that countries need to fit into for success in the global economy
criticism of hyperglobalist view on globalisation
- pessimistic globalists argue that westernisation is what is happening rather than homogenisation
- global culture is synonymous with American culture and local culture around the world is being lost
- this is a form of cultural imperialism
Ritzer - McDonalisation
- the world has become increasingly like McDonald’s - companies operating everywhere with low-skill jobs and limited choices around the world
- big trans-national co-operations dominate the world in the way empires used to
criticisms of McDonalisation
- McDonald’s menus aren’t all the same and are influenced by local culture
- eg. Delhi bean burger more popular than beef burgers
- glocalisation - a product distributed globally is adjusted to accommodate the consumer in a local market
Hall - negative impacts of globalisation
- the decline in nation-state has led to a more aggressive form of racism
- increase in secularisation - people more aware of diversity of beliefs that exist and undermining each belief’s claims
- clashes between religions
