Beliefs Flashcards
How can and can’t religion be harmful?
+ people can pick and choose which parts to believe and follow
+ followers can become exploited by their leaders
- brings people together and motivates them to be good people
substantive definition of religion
in order for a religion to be a religion it must believe in a God or supernatural being
Weber - substantive definition
- religion is only a religion if there is a belief in a superior power that cannot be explained scientifically
evaluation of substantive definition
- some religions have numerous or no Gods eg. atheism
functional definition of religion
a religion needs to perform functions in society
Durkheim - functional definition of religion
- The sacred and the profane are more important than a God. ‘Sacred’ - evoke feelings of awe and wonder eg. Christian cross. ‘Profane’ - ordinary things
- Totemism - The Arunta tribe worshipped a sacred totem - brings society together reinforcing social solidarity
- Collective conscience - shared norms/values/beliefs established through religious rituals eg. Sunday Mass helps people feel part of a community
- Cognitive function - intellectual abilities - without a God we wouldn’t think about time, space, matter, substance etc.
criticism of Durkheim view on religion
- Worsely - there is no clear division of the ‘sacred’ or ‘profane’, totemism doesn’t apply to all religions
- Mestrovic (postmodernist) - cannot be applied to contemporary society as it’s so fragmented, there is no single shared value system
Yinger - functional definition
religion performs functions such as answering existential questions eg. what happens after death?
constructionist definition of religion
focuses on how members of a society define their religion, why the followers believe the religion exists and why they follow it
focuses on the individuals - interpretivist approach
Aldridge - constructionist definition
Scientology is a religion but some government denied its legal status
evaluation of constructionist definition
- could be problematic as everyone has their own opinions and definitions of religion
- unreliable and ungeneralisable
Malinowski - functionalist view on religion
- agrees with Durkheim but religion also performs psychological function
- life events eg. birth, death, puberty can bring uncertainty/tension - religion eases this eg. Judaism has Bar/Bat Mitzvah for puberty
- Trobriand tribe - before dangerous ocean fishing they’d perform rituals to ease tension - if anyone died it was due to the ‘will of God’
Malinowski view on religion - criticism
Western society’s demonstrate how religion is not needed to perform this function
Parsons functions of religion
- socialises people into moral guidelines eg. priests, ministers emphasise moral codes ‘Do not kill’
- helps individuals adapt to change - during grief they provide emotional support through Holy readings etc. Can provide guidance for future eg. Christian marriages - priest offers guidance to be loving and caring
- provides meaning to life situations eg. why there is suffering and poverty - people questioning things can destabilise society, religion provides answers eg. Heaven/Hell
criticisms of Parsons view on religion
- scientific breakthroughs are answering existential questions making some lose faith but society is still stable
- society is diverse and people’s mindsets are changing so people may not agree with religious values
- negative aspects of religion exist - religious wars cause conflict
Bellah view on religion
- religion is being replaced with ‘civil religion’
- civil religion that includes cultural norms, values, beliefs help promote an identity based on the national way of life
- Those migrating to USA learn their culture through religious teachings
- Civil religions promote the ‘American way of life’
- USA promotes American values through religion eg. pledge of allegiance
criticism of Bellah view on religion
- this is not an example of religion but of nationalism
- this concept goes against the substantive definition
Marx view on religion
- ruling class control production industry as well as distribution of ideas through church, school, media etc.
- religion is ideological weapon used by ruling class to legitimate suffering of the poor
- misleads the poor into believing their suffering is virtuous and they’ll be rewarded in the afterlife - false consciousness
- religion is a product of alienation - under capitalism, workers are alienated as they don’t own what they produce, they have no freedom so turn to religion for a sense of belonging and hope
Lenin view on religion
- it is ‘Spiritual Gin’ given to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place by creating a ‘mystical fog’
- religion legitimates the power of the ruling class by making it appear divinely ordained eg. in 16th century it was believed Kings were God’s representative
criticism of marxist view on religion
- religion also performs positive functions eg. Durkheim - social solidarity
- Althusser - rejects idea of alienation as it’s romantic view with no real evidence - we have free will
- religion doesn’t necessarily function as ideology to control people - we can choose what to follow
feminist view on religion
religion is patriarchal institution that reinforces inequality and inferiority of women.
1. religious organisations are male dominated - eg. women cannot become priests/rabbis
2. places of worship segregate women and men eg. muslim women can’t touch Quran on period
3. sacred texts often only feature men or male Gods or present women in negative way eg. Jesus’ disciples
4. religious laws give women less rights than men eg. muslim women told to cover body/ hair
Armstrong - criticism of feminist view on religion
- early religion viewed women highly eg. mother nature, female priests in middle east
- during rise of monotheistic religions, this was pushed aside and this imbued religions with their sexist core
- various goddesses and priestesses were replaced with male prophets
Woodhead - evaluation of feminist view on religion
- the hijab in Islam has been misinterpreted by Western societies
- Muslim women choose to wear a veil and see it as a positive and liberating choice
- in very restrictive middle-eastern societies,women use face veils to allow them to enter employment and empower themselves
Weber view on religion
religion can bring about a force for change - Calvinism can help bring about social change
- in modern capitalism, people are focused on individual profit rather than consumption - ‘spirit of capitalism’
- this is similar to Calvinism:
- predestination: God has decided who is saved before birth
- God is transcendent: no one can ever understand why things happen as it’s beyond human capacity - salvation panic - they are predestined and can’t reach God bc he is transcendent
- Asceticism: abstaining from something
- Vocation: they were called to do God’s work
- Calvinists deny themselves luxury so they accumulate lots of wealth which was reinvested into their business
- this demonstrated the ‘spirit of capitalism’
- calvinism promotes capitalism in society
evaluation of Weber view on religion
- Kautsky - Weber overestimates religion and underestimates economic factors - Calvinism came around in 16th century but capitalism has been around for longer
- Scotland had large calvinist population but were slow to develop capitalism
Bruce - how did American Civil Rights movement use religion to cause social change?
- It was led by Dr Martin Luther King who aimed to end racial discrimination and segregation in the USA
- started by Rosa Parks in 1955 who refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white person
- the church provided safe meeting places away from white oppression and threat
- religion was an ‘ideological resource’ to provide protesters with beliefs they could use for motivation
- Eg. using moral high ground - the black clergy pointed out hypocrisy of the white clergy’s teachings - ‘love thy neighbour’ but this didn’t apply to black people
Bruce - how do New Christian Right movement use religion to cause social change?
- aimed to ‘make America great again’ and bring it back to God
- aim to make abortion, gay marriage, divorce illegal
- want to replace sex education with ‘creationism’ in schools
- use the media to spread their links and recruit new members using social media and church-owned stations - televangelism
- has been very unsuccessful as people find it hard to agree with their extremist views
- people don’t like others dictating their lives and enforcing their beliefs
Crockett - secularisation
- analysed research UK in 1851 and found over 50% population attended church on sundays compared to 7.5% in 2000
- the 19th century was the ‘golden age’ of religion
Office for National Stats changes in religion 2011 - 2021
- For 1st time in census in England and Wales, less than half population describes themselves as Christian - 46.2% compared to 59.3% in 2011
- no religion was 2nd most common response after Christianity increasing from 12% to 37.2%
evidence for secularisation
- 2015 - only 5% adult population attended church on Sundays
- church weddings and baptisms declined - 1971 - 60% weddings in church, 2012 - 30%
- baptisms decreased by 50% since 1964
Weber - rationalisation explanation of secularisation
- people now, are thinking in rational ways rather than using religious thinking
- in medieval times, people adopted the catholic teachings of the world - that it was an ‘enchanted garden’ consisting of angels, devils and supernatural forces - God changed the course of events through miracles
- people thought they could influence these changes through religious practices
- there has been a ‘disenchantment’ of religious views because of the growth of science and technology that gives us rational explanations of events
Parsons - structural differentiation explanation of secularisation
- industrial revolution caused structures in society to change and religion to decline in 2 ways
1. disengagement - the church no longer has influence over education, social welfare, law, now the state has control
2. privatisation - religion has become separate from wider society - only carried out in the home/family - it’s a personal choice
social and cultural diversity explanation of secularisation
decline in community:
- pre-industrial society - communities shared values through religious rituals
- now communities are declining
industrialisation:
- industrialisation made society more diverse, breaking it up
- lack of social cohesion weakened religious thinking
decline in cultures and lifestyles:
- religion relies on the existence of a practising community
- in modern society, people come from different jobs and lifestyles with different beliefs
criticism of social and cultural diversity explanation of secularisation
- despite breakdown of communities and increased diversity, many still view religion as part of their identity
- people don’t have to interact physically to be a religious community - eg. zoom calls in covid 19
Berger - religious diversity explanation of secularisation
- during middle ages, church held sole power - no competition as everyone lived under a ‘sacred canopy’ so greater plausibilityas no one questioned their faith
- after protestant reformation - new denominations and faiths arose
- society was fragmented
- this created a ‘crisis of credibility’ for religion
Wilson - explanation for church attendance staying at around 40% in USA since 1940
- people would attend church because it is seen as the norm, rather than them holding strong religious beliefs
- religion has become superficial
Hadaway et al - study on secularisation in USA
- church attendance being 40% since 1940 didn’t match up with churches’ own stats - if this figure was true, churches would be full and they’re not
- Interviewed people and counted no. of people at church services in a county in Ohio
- found attendance level claimes by interviewees was 83% higher than researchers’ estimates of church attendance in the country
- there is tendency to exaggerate churchgoing since 70s - when opinion polls matched churches’ stats eg. San Francisco study in 1972 - opinion polls exaggerated church attendance by 47% but 1996 - exaggerated by 101%
Bruce - ‘secularisation from within’ in USA
- emphasis on traditional Christian beliefs and glorifying God has declined and religion in the USA has become ‘psychologised’ - turned into a form of therapy enabling it to fit in with a secular society (rest of the world)
Bruce - religious diversity in USA
- there is a trend towards ‘practical relativism’ in Christian Americans - acceptance of other holding beliefs that are different to their own
- churchgoers have become less dogmatic (opinionated)
- people are less concerned about what others are doing in relation to religion
Lynd and Lynd - evidence of practical relativism
- in 1924 94% agreed that Christianity is the one true religion that all people should convert to
- in 1977 41% agreed with it
Bruce - religious diversity in USA - erosion of absolutism
- we live in a society where so many hold views that are different to ours, it undermines the assumption that our own views are completely true
new forms of religion - obligation to consumption - Davie
- previously people were obligated to go to church, in modern society it’s a personal choice whether they do or not
- there is no longer coercion involved
- religion is becoming privatised as people are reluctant to belong to organisations - ‘believing without belonging’
- growing trend towards vicarious religion - churches are seen as a spiritual health service
- churches are free for everyone to use when they need eg. funerals, weddings, mourning of Princess Diana
evaluation of Davie - new forms of religion
+ in 1927 72% babies baptised, in 2019 8% were
- Voas and Crockett - 5750 respondents from survey showed church attendance and a belief in God was declining
- Bruce - if you’re not willing to go to church, this indicates a decline in belief
New forms of religion - spiritual shopping - Hervieu-Leger
- there has been a decline in church attendance bc of cultural amnesia (loss of collective memory)
- previously children were taught abt religion so it was passed on through generations
- now parents let children decide what they want to believe in
- therefore consumers of religion have become ‘spiritual shoppers’
- religion is a personal spiritual journey that people choose
- pilgrims: people following a path of self-discovery through individual therapy
- converts: people joining a religious group to get a strong sense of belonging
+ evaluation of Hervieu-Leger - new forms of religion
+ there is evidence in modern society that traditional beliefs are declining as people are becoming more concerned with individual choice
+ in 1970s over 70% children baptised, in 2019 7% were
new forms of religion - postmodern religion - Lyon
- globalisation and increased importance of the media has changed the nature of religion
- we live in a media-saturated society that has led ideas to become disembedded - media lifts them out of their original context
- as a result, religion has become de-institutionalised - it’s no longer the norm
- there has been a growth of consumerism - we construct our identities through what we consume
- we can pick n mix elements of different faiths to suit our tastes and make them part of our identity
evaluation of Lyon - postmodern religion
- the idea of spiritual shopping challenges traditional religions - having free will to choose from a wide range of religions threatens the sacred canopy
+ having new religions isn’t the end of the world - religion isn’t declining, just evolving
new forms of religion - spiritual revolution - Heelas and Woodhead
- we are experiencing a spiritual revolution - numerous books, courses, consultations, therapies that help individuals work on their spiritual journey
- there has been a growth in the spiritual market
- Heelas and Woodhead - did a study in Kendal, Cumbria to see if traditional religion has declined and spirituality is growing
- they concluded that spirituality is growing bc there is a shift away from doing your duty and obeying external authority (God) to exploring your inner self
- traditional relgions demand obedience but this is out of tune with the current culture
- evangelical churches are more successful than traditional churches bc it focuses on spiritual healing, growth
criticisms of new forms of religion - Bruce
- despite the growing trend in individualised religions, there is a gap left behind of traditional religious beliefs eg. in Kendal in 1851 14,500 church attenders, now only 270 people
- in Kendal, only 32% parents involved in new age beliefs, passed them down to their children - future generations won’t be spiritual
Religious market theory - Stark and Bainbridge
- secularisation is eurocentric - based around European countries and fails to explain why religion is thriving in other societies
- it’s unrealistic to assume religion won’t exist in the future
- people are naturally religious as it meets human needs
- it’s human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs - weigh up options before making a decision eg, being a good Christian to go to heaven
- religion provides supernatural rewards that other institutions cannot provide
- there is a cycle where religions decline, revive and renew, attracting new members to join
- there’s constant competition between churches - operate like companies selling goods in a market
- competition leads to improvements - church that attracts most customers succeeds and others decline
apply religious market theory to America
- demand for religion increases when there is more to choose from
- in postmodern society based on consumerism, religious monopoly declines as there’s no incentive
- religion thrives in USA as there is no religious monopoly, the constitution allows freedom of religion and separation of church and state
- in Europe, there is one single religion - the church of England, no competition, lack of choice and consumerism so religion is declining
positive evaluation of religious market theory
- there has been a growth of evangelical megachurches in multiple countries eg. South Korea has megachurch of nearly 500,000
- Stark - in Japan, the main religion was Shintoism until 1945 as other religions were suppressed, after WW2, new religions such as Soka Gakkai began to thrive
criticisms of religious market theory
- Bruce - stats show increased diversity has led to secularisation
- Norris and Inglehart - research shows countries with multiple religions have lower levels of participation than catholic countries (eg. Ireland and Venezuela) with high levels
- Beckford - this theory is unsociological - assumes people are naturally religious when we have free will
Norris and Inglehart - existential security as alternative to religious market theory
- RMT only applies to America and doesn’t explain religion in other societies
Existential security - when people feel their survival is secure (eg. health services, lawyers) they don’t have a need for religion but in countries where religion acts as a blanket of security, participation levels are higher
- can explain why poor countries remain religious and western societies have become more secular
- America is still religious because it’s very individualistic so higher levels of insecurity and religion is needed
religious fundamentalism
- the adherence to a religion’s most traditional values and beliefs eg. New religious Right in USA
- wish to return to the basics of their faith
- only arises when traditional beliefs are threatened by modern society adopting new secular ideas eg. homosexuality
authoritative sacred texts - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- the religious text is taken very literally, it has answers to all aspects of life including family life, childhood, marriage, politics etc.
- the text is without error and not open to questioning
- If a Christian doesn’t accept the bible as fact, they’re not a true Christian
- Eg. the bible refers to bodily resurrection, Jesus turning water to wine etc.
Aldridge - evaluation of authoritative texts - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- texts have to be interpreted, therefore religious fundamentalists have really just interpreted the bible how they see fit
‘Us and them mentality’ - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- fundamentalists separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise with other groups
- Davie - the adopt this mentality to establish a distance and solid grounding away from what they see as problematic or ‘social and cultural chaos’
Aggressive reaction/behaviour - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- aim to draw attention to themselves
- they react when they feel a threat to their beliefs and in return may use aggression to instil fear or intimidate the enemy
- authoritative leaders often encourage these reactions
Modern technology - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- usually opposed to modern culture as it’s corrupted but they use the internet to televangelist and achieve their aims
- may be to attract the younger generation or because it’s more accessible to the wider population
patriarchy - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- fundamentalists often favour a world that oppresses women
- Hawley - found lots of these groups want to have control over women’s sexuality, reproductive authority and economic positions
- eg. the Quiverfall Movement - Christian fundamentalist groups arguing a woman’s primary role is to bear children, submit to their husbands, reject contraception and advocate traditional gender roles
prophecy - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- Christian fundamentalists believe in the ‘last days’ in the bible including the ‘seven year rule’ of the Antichrist where evil will reign and God’s wrath will be poured out onto the world before Jesus’ return at the end of the 7 yrs
conspiracy theories - characteristic of religious fundamentalism
- they’re attracted to conspiracy theories that consist of powerful, evil forces attempting to take over the world
- eg. many Christian and Islamic fundamentalists uphold antisemitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to dominate the world
Giddens - cosmopolitanism
- embraces modernity
- open to other ideas and views
- suggest people should respect and engage with diverse cultures, values and traditions
- focus on personal spiritual growth
- people should use rational thinking to reach conclusions rather than taking sacred texts literally
Beckford - evaluation of fundamentalism and cosmopolitanism
- they distinguish between fundamentalism and cosmopolitanism too sharply, ignoring hybrid movements
- fail to consider different types of fundamentalism
Bruce - evaluation of fundamentalism
- agrees with Giddens that globalisation encourages fundamentalism
- argues they only arise from monotheistic religions with one God - based on sacred text containing God’s will and is believed to be the word of God
-polytheistic religions lack a single authoritative texts and therefore there are multiple interactions
Nanda - religion and development as evaluation of existential security theory
- existential security theory states that societies that lack security from the state turn to religion, but these middle class Indians are more religious
- she argues this is bc of ‘modern holy men’ and ‘tele guru’s’ who preach that worldly desire is not bad
- traditional Hinduism encourages people to renounce material goods/luxuries of life but modern guru’s promote wealth and luxuries
- changing the narrative of traditional religion means more people
Hindu ultra-nationalism - Nanda - religion and development
- a global attitude survey found 93% Indians felt their culture was superior to others as they feel like hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity
- the collective sense of belonging has led to ‘hindu ultra-nationalism’ as many worship the nation in a similar way to a Hindu God
- eg. Hindu science (eg. astrology to predict natural disasters) is being taught in universities as an academic subject
Troeltsch - 2 types of religious organisations
churches:
- large organisations with millions of members
- run by bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests and claim monopoly of truth
- often closely linked with the state eg. head of the Church of England is King Charles II
- attracts people of status
sects:
- smaller exclusive groups
- draw members from the poor and oppressed
- expect high commitment
no bureaucratic hierarchy - charismatic leader instead
- claim monopoly of religious truth
Niebuhr - denominations
- halfway between churches and sects
- membership less exclusive
- broadly accepts society’s values and tolerate other religions and aren’t linked to the state
- minor resistrictions for members eg. forbidding alcohol, but not as demanding as sects
- don’t claim monopoly on truth
niebuhr - cults
- highly individualistic, loose-knit groups
- small, adopt some shared interest or theme - no monopoly on truth
- often led by practitioners or therapists who claim to have special knowledge
- once members have acquired beliefs or knowledge they may not have further involvement
Wallis - differences between religious organisations
- cults and denominations accept there are multiple valid interpretations of faiths, whereas sects and churches see their interpretation of faith as the only legitimate faith
- sects and cults are seen as deviant in today’s society, whereas churches ad denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate
example of a cult - support for niebuhr
- Jim Jones - started a cult by showing how evil society was and convinced people to go to ‘Jonestown’ - somewhere in Guyana
- it was described as safe and that they would be at peace within a community
- when Jones arrived he became very controlling - took people’s passports, monitored everyone and didn’t let anyone leave
Wallis - world-rejecting NRM
- similar to sects
- highly critical of the outside world, seek radical change
- to achieve salvation, people must reject their former materialistic life
- members live communally and have restricted contact with the outside world
- movements are controlled and often accused of brainwashing members
- often have conservative morals
eg. Jim Jones
Wallis - world accommodating NRM
- break away from mainstream churches or denominations
- focus on religion rather than worldly matters - seek to restore spiritual purity of religion
eg. neo-pentecostalism - split off from Catholic church, believes other Christian religions have lost the Holy Spirit
Wallis - world-affirming NRM
- aren’t highly organised
- tolerant of other religions but offer additional special knowledge and techniques for followers to unlock their spiritual powers to overcome worldly problems eg. unhappiness/illness
- often described as psychologising religions offering worldly gratification
- most of these are cults where entry is through training
evaluation of Wallis - NRM’s
- some NRM’s fall in all 3 categories eg. 3HO - healthy, happy, holy organisation - take elements of sikhisn and hinduism
- Stark and Bainbridge - instead of constructing typologies, we should have one criteria to distinguish between all religious organisations
why NRM’s are still growing - marginality
Marginality
- Troeltsh - sects and cults often attract members who are poor and oppressed - they are disadvantaged and low status
- Weber - this is because sects offer these groups a solution to their problems - a religious explanation for their suffering
evaluation of why sects are growing - marginality
- some sects such as the ‘moonies’ recruited affluent, well educated middle class people - not marginalised
why NRM’s are growing - relative deprivation
- Wallis - MC experiencing relative deprivation turn to NRM’s bc they’re spiritually deprived - lack a sense of community and belonging
- Stark and Bainbridge - relatively deprived people often break away from sects to protect the original message eg. the bible states rich men cannot enter heaven
why NRM’s are growing - social change
- Wilson - rapid social change disrupts social norms and values and results in anomie - in response people turn to sects for community and warmth
- Bruce - modern society has become secular, therefore traditional churches no longer appeal to the population, work also no longer provides a source of identity whereas NRM’s do and they promise success
