Criminal topic 5 - Crime prevention

Question 1

Background - Newman’s theory of defensible space

Answer 1

• certain design features which separate public territory from private territory and ability to observe suspicious activity will reduce invasion and increase security

Question 2

Background - Newman - aim and sample

Answer 2

aim: investigate the differences between two housing projects based on their level of defensible space
sample: Compared two New York building projects
- Van Dyke built in 1955 - a large area of open space
- Brownsville project in 1948 - residents put wallpaper in the hallway and looked after garden area

Question 3

Background - Newman - procedure and results

Answer 3

• Natural experiment - compared the number of crimes committed in each building and number of maintenance jobs required - taken as a measure of how easy it was to invade the space
  Broken down as follows:
• crime felonies
• maintenance jobs
  Results:
• 1189 crimes committed in Van Dyke, 790 in Brownville
• 92 robberies in Van Dyke, 24 in Brownville
• maintenance jobs in Van Dyke were 3301 and 2376 in Brownville project

Question 4

Background - Newman’s summary of suggestions

Answer 4

• to reduce crime - defensible space needed - 4 key factors:
  1. zone of territorial influence - markers to show area is private
  2. opportunities for surveillance
  3. image - the individuality of buildings suggests privacy
  4. Milieau - surrounding of the building - courtyards limit crime, then open spaces

Also suggested that if new development is being built, new residents should be included in planning to have a sense of community and ownership of the project.

Question 5

Background - zero tolerance summary

Answer 5

refers to policing policy where law enforcement agencies respond to all criminal offences that occur in the area

Question 6

Background - Zero tolerance in New York City

Answer 6

• Police Commissioner (Bratton) wanted to see if zero tolerance would improve the city’s poor record on crime.
• Initially, disorder was addressed on the subway and 8 - 10 officers were used to arrest fare dodgers and to send the message that it wouldn’t be tolerated
• 7000 police appointed to low-level crimes - vandalism, littering, vagrancy. After 3 years an overall drop in crime by 37% and 50% in homicide rates
• however would be reductionist in that the drop in crimes was solely down to zero tolerance alone.

Question 7

Background - Zimbardo

Answer 7

• he abandoned two cars in different neighbourhoods - removed number plates and left bonnets open.
• In the Bronx - within 10 minutes, parts began to be stolen, after 3 days car was fully stripped of parts and used as a source of entertainment - reduced to a pile of junk
• In California - Car untouched for a week. Zimbardo smashed parts with a sledgehammer. Passers-by were soon taking part with the hammer and the car demolished in a few hours
• Created an atmosphere of ‘lawlessness’

Question 8

Key research - Wilson and Kelling - aim, sample and procedure

Answer 8

Wrote an article explaining broken windows theory and evaluating police foot patrols
Aims:
1. how features of a neighbourhood can influence crime rates
2. outline the changing role of police in the US
3. Outline strategies for maintaining order
Sample: programme conducted in New Jersey, 28 cities where police were sent to
Procedure:
- police chiefs didn’t like it at first as response times to callouts got longer and control of headquarters over police officers weakened
- officers saw it as a punishment - out it all weather and it was tough

Question 9

Key research - W&K - results and conclusions

Answer 9

Results:
- after 5 years, crime had not dropped - however over benefits such as:
- residents’ perception of crime had dropped and felt safer
- police officers also had more positive attitudes and morale as they were helping communities come together and maintain order
Conclusions:
Public felt reassured that police officers were maintaining order and fear of crime reduced

Question 10

Key research - W&K - evaluation

Answer 10

Strengths:
- Good ecological validity as evidence was gathered while Kelling was walking with foot patrols
Weaknesses:
- low internal validity - participant observation and observer bias
- observations can be seen as objective
- no inter-rater reliability
- individualist culture perception of crime - ethnocentric
Reductionist - as drug rates decreased and economic prosperity not taken into account only zero tolerance

Question 11

Application - Brown - aim, procedure, results

Answer 11

Anti-social behaviour may be from de-individualism and can be avoided by CCTV
aim: investigate how CCTV can reduce de-individualism - natural experiment used, comparing 3 cities pre and post CCTV installation - Birmingham, Newcastle and Kings Lynn
results: Quantitative data collected on offending patterns and police resource use
- CCTV was effective and reduction in offending patterns
- Newcastle burglars were down by 56% and criminal damage by 34%

Question 12

Application - Brown - conclusion

Answer 12

CCTV was positive in reducing anti-social behaviour in areas where large numbers of people congregate - used in non-observed areas to reduce crime
1. target hardening
2. displacement can occur
3. defensible space
4. increased risk of detection