Crime & Deviance

Question 1

What are Durkheim’s 4 key features of crime?

Answer 1

Inevitability
Universal
Functional/beneficial
Relative (varies between societies)

Question 2

How does Durkheim suggest crime is beneficial?

Answer 2

Reinforces collective values by reminding individuals of boundaries.
Enables social change (E.G - suffragettes were criminal)
Acts as a ‘safety valve’ by releasing stress in society (e.g - violent protests express mass discontent)
Social cohesion - horrific crimes bring shared outrage

Question 3

What are the strengths of Durkheim’s theory of crime & deviance?

Answer 3

• Davis agreed that crime is beneficial using prostitution claiming it contains sexual urges preserving social order by protecting the family by maintain fidelity thus protecting the socialisation process.
• Explains social change

Question 4

What are the weaknesses of Durkheim’s theory of crime & deviance?

Answer 4

• Doesn’t explain why some groups are more deviant than others
• Doesn’t explain crimes that are not beneficial such as child abuse
• Overemphasis on value consensus

Question 5

What is Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 5

Social order is based on consensus around shared goals. In unequal society their is ‘strain’ between the shared goals and the means of achieving them. Merton claims there are 5 ways of individuals reacting to strain: conformity, rebellion (rejects existing goals/revolutionaries), retreatism (addicts who completely give up), ritualism (give up on goals but maintain legitimate means), innovation (use crime as an alternative to reach shared goals)

Question 6

What are the criticisms of strain theory?

Answer 6

Ignores group responses to crimes (subcultures)
Ignores social patterns of crime such as gender, ethnicity and class
Focuses on blue collar crime and not white collar/corporate crime

Question 7

What is Cohen’s subcultural theory?

Answer 7

Working class youths face educational underachievement, living in deprived areas and little opportunity to attain their goals by approved means. Therefore, they feel they are denied status in mainstream society and experience status frustration. They react to this frustration by developing alternative values with a deliberate reversal of accepted behaviour. Subcultures also contain elements of revenge against mainstream society which motivates non-financial crimes such as vandalism as well as to gain peer group status.

Question 8

What are the strengths of Cohen’s subcultural theory?

Answer 8

Explains group responses

Explains non-financially motivated crimes

Question 9

What are the weaknesses of Cohen’s subcultural theory?

Answer 9

• Miller argues that the working class do not reject mainstream culture as they have always had an independent culture centred around their separate focal concerns such as masculinity, toughness, autonomy and freedom which carry the risk of law breaking.
• focuses on male subcultures

Question 10

What is Cloward and Ohlin’s subcultural theory?

Answer 10

There are 3 subcultural responses to rejecting mainstream society:
Criminal subcultures - focuses on utilitarian crimes. Found in communities with an established criminal career ladder.
Conflict subcultures - emerge in areas with a lack of social cohesion characterised by violence and gang warfare. Legal & illegal means of achieving goals are blocked by a lack of structure
Retreatist subculture - failed in both legal and illegal means retreating into addiction funded by petty theft.

Question 11

What are the strengths of Cloward & Ohlin’s subcultural theory?

Answer 11

Explains group responses

Explains financial and non-financial crimes

Question 12

What are the weaknesses of Cloward & Ohlin’s subcultural theory?

Answer 12

Ignores women/female gangs
Ignores white collar/corporate crime
Matza (interactionist) argues it is deterministic, the structure of society does not construct free will, evident by youths ‘drifting’ in and out of delinquency and growing out of it in adulthood.

Question 13

What is Matza’s theory of techniques of neutralisation?

Answer 13

Matza stresses the similarity between the values of mainstream society and delinquents. This is evident by when delinquents are caught committing crimes, they use techniques of neutralisation which are justifications used to excuse acts of crime by denying responsibility or justified by the circumstances. This shows that they still have a commitment to mainstream values not a rejection of them.

Question 14

What is Hirschi’s control theory?

Answer 14

All humans suffer from weaknesses which make them unable to resis the temptation and turn to crime, but social bonds encourage self control and tie them to conformity. Hirschi identified 4 social bonds: attachment (family & friends), commitment (the person with less to lose will commit crime), involvement (legitimate activities preoccupy individuals so they have less opportunity to commit crime), belief (morality)

Question 15

What are the criticisms of control theory?

Answer 15

Doe not explain why some individuals have weaker bonds than others
Ignores differences in criminal activity between social groups
Does not argue why some people with strong social bonds still commit crimes.

Question 16

What is Sutherland’s ecological theory?

Answer 16

Sutherland and Cressey argue that the more time you spend with criminals, the more likely you are to become one. This is called differential association.

Question 17

What is Shaw & McKay’s ecological theory?

Answer 17

They divide cities into 5 concentric zones, zone 2 Is the zone of transition of cities where there is instability and therefore, has the highest rate of crime. The high turn over of population due to new immigrants leads to social disorganisation. The informal social control are weak as people felt little guilt about committing crimes against their neighbors and feel little sense of duty to prevent others from crime.

Question 18

What are the criticisms of ecological theory?

Answer 18

Difficulty in establishing causality, does social disorganisation lead to crime or vice versa

Question 19

What is Gordon’s traditional Marxist view of crime?

Answer 19

Capitalism is criminogenic in that crime is a natural and inevitable outcome of capitalist society as it socialises self interest, personal gain and greed into its members. Therefore, individuals who feel socially excluded from consumer society turns to crime to achieve economic and personal gain.

Question 20

What is Snider’s traditional Marxist view of crime?

Answer 20

The law reflects ruling class interests. Most laws protect private property. Very little laws are passed that regulate businesses as it can impede profits unless they are forced to do so.

Question 21

What is Chambliss’ traditional Marxist view of crime?

Answer 21

In his study of the Saints and Roughnecks, found that law enforcement are selective and have negative stereotypes that working class individuals are criminal. Chambliss also adds that this diverts the working class’ attention away from crimes committed by capitalists and their exploitation in the workplace.

Question 22

What is Gilroy’s neo-Marxist view of crime?

Answer 22

Working class crime (particularly by Black working class) is a form of political resistance to ruling class oppression. The ruling class use police discrimination and harassment as a form of control which the working class take political action against through crime as ‘Robin Hood’ figures.

Question 23

What is Taylor, Walton and Young’s neo-Marxist view of crime?

Answer 23

A ‘fully social theory’ involving an explanation of 6 dimensions including social origins of the criminal/deviant act and wider societal reactions.

Question 24

What is Hall et al. Neo-Marxist view of crime?

Answer 24

Crime is used to reassert the dominance of ruling class hegemony at times when it is under threat during economic/political crisis. This is supported in his study of the moral panic involving Afro-Caribbean mugging in the 1970’s when there was a time of recession, unemployment, strikes and poverty. The emphasis on crime diverted attention away from the economic crisis.

Question 25

What is Brake’s Marxist subcultural theory?

Answer 25

Each generation faces the same problem of unemployment and express their disdain for capitalism through identities. Working class resistance occurs through subcultures that covey anti capitalism identities through clothing and language.

Question 26

What is Cohen’s Marxist subcultural theory?

Answer 26

Globalisation has led to manual labour being outsourced and mass migration. As a result Working class communities proposed the skinhead style to be symbolic of a defence of territory against immigration for better employment prospects.

Question 27

What is Hebdige’s Marxist subcultural theory?

Answer 27

Punk rockers in the 1970’s set out to shock the establishment by choosing a ‘bricolage’ of objects that are unusual and creative to signify ‘voluntary assumption of outcast status’. This was due to economic crisis.

Question 28

What is Becker’s labelling theory?

Answer 28

Labels define an individual as a particular kind of person and are not neutral (such as ‘deviant’).Once labelled, it can become the individuals master status overriding all other labels affecting the self concept. This can lead to self fulfilling prophecy (deviant career).

Question 29

What is cicourel’s labelling theory?

Answer 29

Law enforcement are highly selective when deciding to label an individual criminal/deviant. This is due to negative typifications (stereotypes) about social groups obtained from the media.

Question 30

What is Wilkins’ labelling theory?

Answer 30

Moral entrepreneurs such as the media reaction to increases in deviancy causes a further increase in deviancy (deviancy amplification) through moral panics and folk devils. This is evident in Cohen’s study of Mods and Rockers and Young’s study of marijuana hippies.

Question 31

What is Lea and Young’s left realist theory of crime?

Answer 31

Relative deprivation generates feelings of resentment against people with more leading to criminal activity as a way of pursuing their own self interest. Marginalisation increases crime as way of expressing frustration of having no power to influence the political system that governs them. This creates a bulimic society as individuals ‘binge’ on (mass cultural inclusion) media advertisement of consumer goods, accompanied by the economic exclusion felt by working class who ‘vomit’ (expell) their raised expectations as deviancy/crime.

Question 32

What solutions do left realists provide to tackle crime?

Answer 32

Consensus policing, multi agency approach, positive discrimination to recruit ethically diverse police all build trust. Braithwaites ‘reintegration shaming’ should be key practice in CJS as it prevents reoffending because they will feel less marginalised.

Question 33

What is Muarry’s right realist explanation of crime?

Answer 33

An ‘underclass’ is characterised by Lone parent families headed by women who inadequately socialise children. Particularly young boys are affected due to a lack of a father figure leading to lack of discipline. Muarry argues this causes deviancy among the underclass.

Question 34

What is rational choice and opportunity theory (right realist)?

Answer 34

Cornish and Clarke argue individuals weigh up the costs and benefits before choosing to commit a criminal act. Crime is also a most likely when there is opportunity as it can be the tipping point for the risks to be worth it.

Question 35

What is routine activity theory (right realist)?

Answer 35

There are 3 conditions for crime to occur: motivation, opportunity, and lack of a capable guardian to protect victims.

Question 36

What is Broken windows theory (right realist)?

Answer 36

One broken window in a neighbourhood can lead to petty crime such as vandalism and graffiti. If these crimes are not challenged the area becomes a haven for criminality and attract more serious crimes. Therefore, agencies such as police and neighbourhood watch need to stop areas from deteriorating.

Question 37

What solutions are provided by right realists to tackle crime?

Answer 37

Target hardening policies
Stricter informal control (socialisation)
Increase policing to reduce opportunity.

Question 38

What is Henry et al. (postmodernist) transgressive approach to explaining crime?

Answer 38

Laws are an outdated meta narrative that cannot control the diversity of postmodern society. Therefore, a new definition of crime must be created. Henry identified 2 types of new crime: Harm of reduction (injury/loss to a person) and harm of repression (harm to future human development).

Question 39

What is Lyng’s postmodernist explanation of crime?

Answer 39

In postmodern society, people are free from the constraints of social norms and so crime has become an expression of identity and thus crime is committed for the ‘edgework’ - thrill and risk taking involved which constructs their identity through the pleasure of ‘living on the edge’.

Question 40

What is Held et al. arguements on the affect of globalisation on crime?

Answer 40

Increasing interconnectedness creates new opportunities, new means and new offences. Especially the spread of transnational organised crime generating a global shadow economy worth over £1 trillion per annum.

Question 41

What is the Taylor’s (Marxist)view of globalisation and crime?

Answer 41

Taylor argues that the spread of capitalism round the world has created greater inequality. Job insecurity encourages criminality with the lack of legitimate job opportunities.

Question 42

What are Hobbs and Dunnigham’s (Marxist) view of globalisation and crime?

Answer 42

Crime is locally based with now global connections and therefore operates under a ‘glocal ‘ system. For example, drugs can only be obtained by a local contact, but that contact has connections to global contacts.

Question 43

What is Glenny’s Marxist view of globalisation and crime?

Answer 43

Glenny traces the origins of transnational organised crime to the breakup of the Soviet Union and the deregulation of global markets. To protect wealth the capitalists turned to ‘mafias’, but the mafias were purely economic organisations pursuing self interest. Glenny called these McMafias as they act like legitimate TNC’s within the global shadow economy.

Question 44

What is Beck’s global risk society?

Answer 44

Today’s late modern society massive increase in productivity and technology has created ‘manufactured risks’ including harm to the environment and its consequence for humanity.

Question 45

What is White’s view of globalisation and crime?

Answer 45

Nations and TNC’s take an anthropocentric view of environmental harm assuming humans ha e the right to dominate nature. White argues and eco centric view is needed as the environment and humans are interdependent and if one is harmed so is the other.