Counterfactuals Flashcards

1
Q

What is Counterfactual Thinking?

A

•Mental simulation about how a past event might have been different•“If only…” thoughts

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2
Q

Direction of CFT

Main feature/classification

A
  • UPWARD: We imagine how things could have been better.
    •Induces negative affect, but might help to do better in the future•More common than downward counterfactuals
  • DOWNWARD
    We imagine how things could have been worse.
    •Induces positive affect, but might prevent future improvement•Can observed with low repeatability / low control
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3
Q

Structure of CFT

Main featuers/classification

A
- ADDITIVE
Change past event by adding something
•“Expansive” processing style
•Help with creative generation tasks
- SUBTRACTIVE
Change past event by removingsomething
•“Relational” processing style
•Help with analytical tasks (like syllogisms)
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4
Q

Determinants of Counterfactual Thinking

A
  • NEGATIVE AFFECT: Signal that a problem is present
    •Prompts comparison with a better alternative
    •Strong antecedent of upward counterfactual
  • OUTCOME CLOSENESS: High perceived possibility that an alternative outcome could have happened (positive or negative)
    •Temporal, physical, numerical
    •Nearly avoided negative outcomes might prompt downward counterfactuals
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5
Q

Content of Counterfactual Thinking

A
  • Potentially infinite number of possible counterfactuals
  • But people show consistent patterns in the content of their counterfactuals
  • Four Fault Lines of Reality
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6
Q

Fault Lines –Controllability Effect

A

When we generate a counterfactual, we tend to mutate controllable rather than uncontrollable elements of the past event

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7
Q

Exceptionality effect (Kahneman& Tversky, 1982a)

A

When we generate a counterfactual, we tend to mutate out-of-the-ordinary rather than normal elements of the past event

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8
Q

Action effect (Kahneman& Tversky, 1982b)

A

When we generate a counterfactual, we tend to mutate an action rather than an inaction

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9
Q

Temporal order effect (Miller & Gunasegaram, 1990)

A

When we generate a counterfactual, we tend to mutate the most recent rather than earlier elements of the past event

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10
Q

What is the content of our counterfactual thoughts?

A

Four Fault Lines:

  1. Controllability Effect
  2. Exceptionality effect
  3. Action effect
  4. Temporal order effect
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11
Q

How do we classify counterfactual thoughts?

A
  • Direction

- Structure

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12
Q

When do we produce counterfactual thoughts?

A

Determinants

  • Negative affect
  • Outcome closeness
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13
Q

Why do we engage in Counterfactual Thinking?

Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking (Epstude& Roese, 2008

A

Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking (Epstude& Roese, 2008)
•After a negative event, counterfactuals are generated to prepare ourselves and do better in a future similar event (preparatory function)
•Activated when a problem is detected, favoring behaviors that should correct the problem

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14
Q

Problem with Functional Theory

A
  • Controllability effect is crucial for Functional Theory
  • Previous studies only used scenarios, assuming that counterfactuals by readers and actors would have been the same
  • Do actors produce controllable counterfactuals as well?
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15
Q

Actor-Reader Effect

A

Discrepancy between counterfactuals by readers and actors:
•Readers produced majority of controllable counterfactuals (“If only she had chosen the other envelope”)
•Actors produced a majority of uncontrollable counterfactuals (“If only I could have used paper and pencil”)
Result replicated in many other studies
This finding questions the robustness of Functional Theory: uncontrollable counterfactuals have little preparatory value

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16
Q

Functions of Counterfactual Thinking

A

Preparatory function
•Counterfactuals are used to prepare and do better in a future similar event
•Might be less central than previously thought
Explanatory function
•Counterfactuals to better understand a past event, for example by increasing perceived coherence between its elements
•Justification of past events / Excuse-making and self-handicapping
Consolatory function
•Carried out by downward counterfactuals •Common with low repeatability or low perceived control àImprove mood, beneficial for mental health