Counter-Reformation Flashcards
Cardinal Ximenes
primate of Spain 1495-1517
Cardinal Ximenes
primate of Spain 1495-1517
enforced poverty
dissolved dissatisfactory houses
Incumbents must remain residents in the right place
Founded university of Alaca, encouraged teaching of Latin and Greek
Ximenes et al.’s Polygot Bible available by 1522
What did the conflict with Protestantism do for reform, according to Chadwick?
‘The conflict with Protestantism gave to reform a new edge, to cut through the vested interests and administrative conservatism which everywhere frustrated reform’
Reform was given a new vitality
Persecution by Spanish Inquisition
Erasmians and the Inquisition
Reading Castilian Bible prohibited in 1537 (Spanish language of Castile)
Lutherans hunted and persecuted, burned 1558-60
Why form new orders?
Forming new orders for the sake of reform was an old practice
Easier to make new than reform old
Reforms would divide existing institutions
Too many vested secular interests
Old orders reformed
Some old orders reformed
Matteo de Bascio (d. 1552)
Wanted to revive Franciscan style
Order of Capuchins recognised in 1528
New Religious Orders
Some new orders Theatines (1524) Somaschi (1532) Barnabites (1533) The Jesuits Ursulines (1535) Oratories The Oratory of Divine Love (1516)
What was new about new religious orders
What was new? Active, not withdrawn ‘Life of charity and social endeavour’ Better clergy - the most important end of the Counter- Reformation Residing in their benefice Uncorrupted Celibate Educated
St Philip Neri
u
Gaetano da Thiene
u
Ignatius Loyola 1491-1556
Ignatius Loyola
After injury to leg, bed bound, vision of the Madonna and Jesus —> Wants to be Saint
Resolves on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, stops at Manresa
Religious practice
austerity, self-flagellation and prayer - found regime unfulfilling
Focus on obedience to his church
‘if faith was the ground of all Luther’s work, obedience was the key to Loyola’s.’
‘The Spiritual Exercises’ (published 1848)
Aimed at mastering one’s will
Solitary reflection followed by submitting to God’s mercy
Obedience to superior, and thus to the Church
To be right in everything, we ought always to hold that the white which I see, is black, if the Hierarchical Church so decides it - Loyola
Submitted to the Pope, and were directed at the betterment of Italian churches
Formed a ‘Company of Jesus’ which became official in 1540
Demographic growth of Jesuits
Rapid growth 1540-55
From very few to 1000+ and governing body of nearly 50
Jesuit ideas
Ideas
Became educators, missionaries, preachers
Looser structure than before to allow them to be active in the world
Lived out in the world, no need to recite the divine office together
Allowed them to focus on charitable acts more effectively
‘The success of the Jesuits sprang largely from this readiness to adjust the old ideals of the monks for the needs of the new generation.’
Jesuits Missionary action (see ‘Expansion’ deck for thorough treatment)
Missionary action in Americas
Went under Francis Xavier in April 1541
Jesuit impact on education
Education First Jesuit school at Messina in 1548 Colleges at Padua and Rome in 1542/1551 Education of the upper classes Became associated with leading classes and the Court
Jesuits in Germany
Jesuits in Germany
Summoned to work in Germany in 1542
Since they thought obedience to the Pope and the Catholic Church in universities - places of radical thinking - they were a good means of reisting antithetical protestant views
First teaching at Ingolstadt in 1549
Peter Canisius’ Catechism (1555)
Peter Canisius’ Catechism (1555)
Uncontroversial but influential statement on Catholic beliefs
But should remember statements such as this constitute ‘the least important parts of the battle against the Protestants’
Corruption and abuses invited Protestantism; to tackle Protestantism, tackle the causes at the root. (Chadwick)
What problems prevented, for a long time, the calling of a General Council (Trent)
A General Council?
Traditional method of reforming the church
Question of who would attend, and when
Problem
Pope was only one with authority to call such a council
Protestants couldn’t expect fair treatment at a council summoned by their opponent
—> How can a council with full authority be called?
Germans wanted ‘free’ council (not called by Pope
Charles V, a Catholic, wanted it called in German lands
Did reform mean fighting the protestants or making concessions to them?
Cardinal Contarini (part of committee that wrote the 1537 report) believed in making concessions Some wanted not to make new laws but thought the solution was to enforce old ones
Cardinal Campeggio (1530): ‘what is the point of a council when the Lutherans do not obey the canons of earlier councils?’
Pope Paul III (1534-49) realised a council must be summoned
Pope Paul III (1534-49) realised a council must be summoned
Saw necessity of reform from within (Chadwick)
Promoted reformers
Report of a Select Committee on Reforming the Church (1537) issued by reformers
Compulsory residence
Critical of indulgences and devotions (to relics ect)
Omitted mention of education
Critical of corruption: of simony, nepotism ect
Colloquy of Ratisbon (1541) (Diet at Regensburg)
Colloquy of Ratisbon (1541) (Diet at Regensburg)
Contarini and moderate Catholics meet with Melanchthon and Bucer
Reaches agreement on the Justification of Faith
Controversial
Francis I of France scared that Charles V might succeed in uniting his country
Luther suspicious of the remarkable arrangement
Despite this, Contarini and Protestants cannot reach an agreement on Transubstantiation
Opened way for ‘opposing party’
now aimed at reaffirming Catholic doctrine and correcting errors (Chadwick, near quote)
—> New inquisition
Roman Inquisition formed 1642
Roman inquisition (1642)
Result of Caraffa’s school, arguing that conciliatory efforts had encouraged heresies
Powers of imprisonment and execution given to six cardinals, including Caraffa
Little impact outside of Italy, but ‘disastrous’ effect therein
Heretic hunts
Investigation of Italian humanists
Pope Paul IV
Pope Paul IV
Devoted equally to the incompatible ideas of Catholic restoration and attacking Spanish influence in italy (near direct quote)
Incompatible forces of Renaissance and Reform in Italy
Reform
All Bishops but those needed to run the Church were returned to their sees
Published index of prohibited books
Ghettoisation of Jews
Continuing action of the Inquisition founded in 1542
‘The wave of moral severity, which in another part of Europe was creating puritanism, was now strengthening the hand of the Catholic reformers’
Dates of the Council of Trent
The Council of Trent (1545-8, 1551-2, 1562-3)
Why had the Council of Trent been avoided for so long?
Long avoided
legate aleander: ‘Never offer a council, never refuse it directly’
legate cervini: ‘Commit yourself to nothing’
Charles V busy fighting in France, so not much time to push for a council in Germany
French wished not to have a German council as it feared a united Germany
Emperor and French king sign Peace of Crepy in 1544 —> Council of Trent meets 1545
“they (the previous Popes) did not feel any enthusiasm for the abolition of abuses which were lucrative for the Papacy.” (Cowie)
What conditions made it possible for Trent to go ahead?
Trent was a compromise
Catholic bishop
Located in italy
Also within HRE
Different people came to Trent with different aims
Charles V wanted peace in Germany, wanted to focus on discipline>doctrine (Chadwick)
First session of the Council of Trent, 1545-8
No compromise with Protestants
To combat protestant scriptural evidence, argued that scripture and unwritten tradition to be considered equally important
Seven sacraments, not three, re-instated
Latin Vulgate affirmed to be the authoritative text
‘Propitiatory’ sacrifice in the mass (Chadwick)
Mass should be said in the vulgate
—> Clear that conciliatory efforts would be unsuccessful
Second session of the Council of Trent, 1551
Lutherans arrive late 1551 for SECOND SESSION
Demand that all so far made null, new discussion of doctrine —> Catholics reject idea
Want bishops to be freed of duties to Pope
Want conciliar authority to be greater than pope’s
BUT
Transubstantiation reaffirmed
Pilgrimage and penance reaffirmed
Eucharist with bread AND wine is condemned
Ordered that every Bishop establish a training college for priests
Jesuits helped
How significant was lack of compromise in the COT’s second session?
How significant was lack of compromise?
‘Sounded more hostile to Protestants than they really were’
Wording of doctrinal agreements at Trent left grey areas that could be freely interpreted
Charles, who wants peace in Germany, dislikes how divisive the ideas put forward are and refuses to recognise them at the Diet of Ausburg
Significance of the Council of Trent
Significance of the Council of Trent
Enforcement more difficult than legislation.
Took a long time to ensure there were theological colleges (seminaries) in every diocese w/o a university
Lead to Pope Pius IV releasing Catechism in 1566
Counter- Reformation case study: Charles Borromeo
Counter- Reformation case study: Charles Borromeo
Archbishop of Milan 1560-1584
Lived in luxury, hunting, had a benefice aged 12
Received ignatius’ ‘Spiritual exercises’ and turned to a life of austerity
Began to preach
Instrumental in final session of the Council of Trent 1562-3
Established three seminaries
Education society founded 740 schools (near quote)
Counter Reformation Repression of the Press
Repression of the Press
‘Catholic scholarship in the age of the Counter-Reformation was much hampered by control of the press’
Galileo’s condemnation in 1633
However, equally high censorship for Protestants
—> ‘Pope Urban VIII and his advisers…were not so much oppressors as the first bewildered casualties of the scientific age’
Specifically repressing heretical or anti-clerical literature, but liberal attitudes to everything else
Less censorship under Gregory XIII
Juan Maldonado protected
Established press for Oriental literature
The Political Counter- Reformation 1562-1629
The Political Counter- Reformation 1562-1629
‘Political revival of Catholic power’
Began with Peace of Cateau-Cambresis 1559, followed by decline of France as a superpower with French Wars of Religion
Coming of Protestantism across Europe (France, Switzerland, Ireland, Germany) created impetus for allied Catholics
Problems with Peace of Ausburg
‘The Peace of Ausburg was politically successful’ but had two problems:
didn’t make provisions for the status of Calvinists (Chadwick)
Therefore, Zwinglians and Calvinists had no legal right to live in Germany
What if a prince-bishop converted to Protestantism
—>
Peace of Westphalia
Re-asserted Peace of Augsburg (1555) to now cover Calvinists, too.
Lands heled by Protestant Bishops as of early 1624 to remain so.
Measures for religious toleration
Cause of 30 yrs war
The Thirty Years War
Bohemia was ruled by a PROTESTANT until the Ascension of Ferdinand II who was a CATHOLIC
Ferdinand II prohibited free Protestant worship
–>
The Defenestration of Prague
May 13th 1608, Protestant revolting Nobles threw imperial ministers from the window of Prague Castle (the defenestration of Prague). Jesuits thrown out and Austria in revolt
–>
Crown offered to Frederick V (Calvinist) —> 30 yrs war
30 yrs war (EXPAND)
STAGE 1: Bohemian - RELIGIOUS AND LOCALISED
- Battle of White Mountain, Catholic, Hapsburg victory against Protestants
- 1620-27, Bohemia Catholicised by force
STAGE 2: Danish - RELIGIOUS AND LOCALISED
- Protestant LUTHERAN King of Denmark Repulsed by Wallenstein –> Catholic Victory
STAGE 3: Swedish - POLITICAL AND CONTINENTAL
- Gustavus Adolphus, LUTHERAN, supported by FRENCH
- French are CATHOLIC but in the interests of POLITIQUE they are supporting the PROTESTANT Swedens to counter HAPSBURG power.
- Gustavus Adolphus dies at Battle of Lützen in 1632 –> Funding from French ends
STAGE 4: Danish - POLITICAL AND CONTINENTAL
- Swedish funding the French to fight
- Now completely irreligious
Peace of Westphalia 1648
Peace of Westphalia
- Re-asserted Peace of Augsburg (1555) to now cover Calvinists, too.
- Lands heled by Protestant Bishops as of early 1624 to remain so.
- Measures for religious toleration
Territorial consequences
- Loss of control for HRE
- Dutch Netherlands now largely independent
- Brandenburg (later to be united Germany) gains territory
- France gets Alsace
- Switzerland becomes independent (still is)
Chadwick verdict on success of CR
Counter-Reformation had failed to reclaim Protestant states, but had gained new followers by the Jesuits and through the colonisation of the Americas by Catholic missionaries
Wolfgang Reinhard, Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and the Early Modern State a Reassessment:
Wolfgang Reinhard, Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and the Early Modern State a Reassessment: The Counter-Reformation, if a reaction, was not only reactionary.’
david c. steinmetz, The Council of Trent in The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology: (On Trent)
david c. steinmetz, The Council of Trent in The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology: (Trent created) a clear and authoritative statement on all the disputed questions of the day (and) finalised the split.
G.R. Elton, Reformation Europe, on the success of the CR
G.R. Elton, Reformation Europe: ‘the Protestant success was never more than partial…(and the church proved) surprisingly resistant’
Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, (April 3, 1559), a
Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, (April 3, 1559), agreement marking the end of the 65-year (1494–1559) struggle between France and Spain for the control of Italy, leaving Habsburg Spain the dominant power there for the next 150 years.
