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Neuroanatomy > Cortex, Learning, Memory (2) > Flashcards

Cortex, Learning, Memory (2) Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

A

Processes information associated
with each modalities of sensation, language, skilled movements, emotional makeup and
sensitivity to societal norms; cognitive functions information processing

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2
Q

What are the phylogenic divisions of the cortex?

A

archicortex (hippocampus) and
paleocortex (olfactory cortex] and neo
(90% of the total cortex) cortex (6 layers only mammals)

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3
Q

What are the characteristics of projection neurons? What percent of cortex?

A

are pyramidal in shape, use Glu as NT, carry information from one stage to the next for processing or command, 70%

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4
Q

What are the characteristics of interneurons? What percent of cortex?

A

usually inhibitory, using GABA as NT, layer IV are excitatory and use Glu as NT, 25%

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5
Q

Sensory cortices, such as primary visual cortex, which layer is prominent?

A

internal granule layer(layer IV) where incoming information terminates.

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6
Q

Motor cortices, such as the primary motor cortex, involved with outputs, have a well
developed what layer?

A

internal pyramidal layer (layer V) and a meager layer IV

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7
Q

The neural stem cells (NSCs) are oriented how? divide where? What do these cells do initially?

A

radially oriented in the wall of the
neural tube, near the ventricular surface, thus forming a ventricular zone (VZ), divide symmetrically to increase stem cell pool

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8
Q

NSC’s eventually divide how?

A

asymmetrically to generate stem cells that remain in VZ and daughter cells that migrate out towards the pial surface

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9
Q

How does laminar organization develop?

A

first wave radially migrating neuroblasts settle in cortical plate (CP), splits into
superficial marginal zone (MZ) & underlying sub plate (SP) layer. SP cells generate layer VI neurons. layer V cells migrate
thru layer VI neurons to reach CP and differentiate; process repeated; projection neurons in dorsal telencephalon

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10
Q

GABAergic interneurons are born where? How do they migrate?

A

ventral telencephalon (MGE and LGE); tangentially to the neocortex

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11
Q

What signal molecule takes a cortical progenitor to a neuronal precursor?

A

Ngn

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12
Q

What causes differentiation to an astrocyte?

A

Id+Hes; cortical progenitor lacking a signal molecule or just Hes?

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13
Q

What is the function of signal molecule Mash 1?

A

ventral progenitor to neuronal precursor

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14
Q

What is the function of signal molecule Neuro D?

A

neuronal precursor to GABAergic interneuron or pyramidal neuron; location/progenitor dependent

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15
Q

What is the function of signal molecule ID and Hes?

A

maintainence of progenitor cells ventral and cortical

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16
Q

What causes differentiation of an oligodendrocytes?

A

signal molecule Olig

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17
Q

What are the 2 kinds of neocortex organization?

A

laminar and columnar

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18
Q

A cortical column corresponds to what?

A

cylindrical area, extending from ventricular surface towards the pial surface

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19
Q

What is the significance of columnar organization?

A

fundamental computational modules; similar response properties within column

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20
Q

What are the brodman’s areas of the primary sensory cortex and their associated sense?

A

1,2,3- sensory cortex, 17- vision, 41,42- auditory

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21
Q

What are the brodman’s areas of the Higher order sensory cortex (unimodal) and their associated sense?

A

5, 7(vision) =2° sensory cortex, 18-21 =vision, 22 =auditory

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22
Q

What are the brodman’s areas of the Primary motor cortex?

A

4 =primary motor cortex (execution)

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23
Q

What are the brodman’s areas of the Higher order motor cortex and their function?

A

6 (medial) =supplementary cortex (complex motor sequences, bi-mannual coordination)
8 =frontal eye field, 44-45 =motor speech area

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24
Q

What are the brodman’s areas of the Association cortex (multimodal) and their function?

A

39,40,19,21,22,37= Posterior (sensory+language), Rostral of 6 = Anterior
(cognition+motor planning), 23,24,38,28,11 =limbic (emotion+memory)

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25
Q

PET scan identifies different cerebral
cortical regions involved in a particular
function by what?

A

Measurement of the regional blood flow

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26
Q

Visual stimuli evoked activities in what?

A

primary and secondary visual cortex.

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27
Q

Auditory stimuli evoked activities in what?

A

primary and secondary auditory cortex.

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28
Q

Speaking words evoked activities in what?

A

primary motor cortex and the Broca’s area near the sylvian fissure.

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29
Q

Word association that requires attention and

thoughts evoked activities in what?

A

left inferior frontal area, anterior cingulate gyrus, and posterior temporal lobe.

30
Q

Mirror neurons are premotor neurons

that fire when what?

A

performs object directed actions and when observing some one else performing the same class of actions

31
Q

Two major areas containing mirror neurons have been identified as?

A

ventral premotor area (inferior frontal cortex) and inferior parietal cortex.

32
Q

The premotor neurons areas are not only involved in action recognition but also in what?

A

understanding the intention of the action; critical component of establishing social behavior and norms.

33
Q

What is the function of the association cortex?

A

integrate sensory inputs to motor , interpret sensory information in the backdrop of
experience and emotion, focusing attention while exploring the environment for goal-directed movement

34
Q

What is the flow of processing in the association cortexes?

A

peripheral receptors (retina) through primary
cortex (17) and unimodal cortex (area 20) to multimodal assoc.areas (21; PrCo) for integration with other senses, Post. assoc. area (21) project to ant. assoc. area (46,
25, 35) for planning motor action in
response to sensory inputs.

35
Q

What is the function of the Anterior Association Area?

A

judgment and restraint, long-term planning, order and organization

36
Q

A dorsolateral convexity lesion results in what?

A

apathetic, lifeless abulic state

37
Q

An orbitofrontal lesion results in what?

A

impulsive and disinhibited state with poor judgment

38
Q

What is the function of the posterior association cortex?

A

integrates somatic sensory information with other sensory modalities (i.e.,vision) towards
perception, planned manipulation of objects and sense of body with respect to space.

39
Q

A lesion to the posterior association cortex results in what?

A

agnosia, which is complex such as defects in spatial perception, visuomotor integration and selective attention.

40
Q

What is Balint’s syndrome?

A

inability to make sense of a complex visual

scene as a whole and reach objects of interest

41
Q

What are neglect syndromes?

A

could be personal (self-image), spatial

(extra personal space), or representational (Remembered extra personal space) neglect

42
Q

Language processing, speech and skilled

motor formulation are primarily where?

A

left hemispheres (=dominant hemisphere); rt hand 4% on rt side, lt hand- 15% bilateral and 15% rt side

43
Q

The non dominant hemisphere is

specialized for what?

A

non verbal functions, processes information for complex visual spatial skills, provide, emotional overtone to language and events, sense of direction and music perception

44
Q

What is learning?

A

Modification of behavior as a result of experience

45
Q

what is memory?

A

Storage and retrieval of information.

46
Q

What are the two kinds of non-associative learning?

A

habituation and sensitization

47
Q

What is habituation?

A

Decrease in response to repeated presentation of a stimulus. Ex: ticking of a new clock.

48
Q

What is sensitization?

A

Increase in response to a weak stimulus when it follows a strong stimulus. Ex: drug addiction

49
Q

What are the different forms of associative learning?

A

Classical conditioning, Operant (instrumental) conditioning

50
Q

What is Operant (instrumental) conditioning?

A

involves association of a stimulus with a
response. Consequences to behavior can involve reward or punishment and will
cause the behavior to either increase (reinforcement) or decrease (punishment). (Gambling or salary)

51
Q

What is classic conditioning?

A

involves reflexive behavior. Pairing of unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus. Example: meat with a bell for Pavlov’s dog.

52
Q

What is the molecular basis for associative learning?

A

Long term potentiation (LTP) and long term depression (LTD) in the hippocampus and neocortex.

53
Q

Where does motor learning occur? What molecular process?

A

Occurs in the cerebellum and is thought to involve LTD

54
Q

What is mental retardation?

A

many disabilities, most notable is general difficulty in learning. genetic or environ. causes. neocortex is often involved although other areas of the brain may be affected

55
Q

Brain damage after traumatic injury results in what?

A

Problems in learning may occur depending on which areas of the brain are damaged.

56
Q

What are the different kinds of memory?

A

declarative- semantic or episodic and procedural

57
Q

What is sematic memory? Damage to where results in impairment?

A

Knowledge of facts. Not hippocampal formation, but parahippocampal gyrus

58
Q

What is episodic memory? Damage to where results in impairment?

A

Recollection of specific events. Specifically to the hippocampal formation.

59
Q

What is procedural memory? What areas of the brain may be involved?

A

Learning how to complete tasks efficiently. cerebellum and basal ganglia.

60
Q

What are the stages of memory? What is the capacity of each?

A

sensory (200-500) limited capacity, short-term (working sec-min) capacity 4-7 items, long term (decades) capacity unlimited

61
Q

Transferrring information from short term to long term memory appears to require what?

A

hippocampus

62
Q

Long term memories are thought to be stored where?

A

neocortex

63
Q

What are the stages of processing of memory?

A

encoding, storage, and retrieval

64
Q

what is Anterograde amnesia? What area is involved?

A

An inability to form new memories; hippocampal formation

65
Q

What is retrograde amnesia? brain area involved?

A

An inability to retrieve old memories, neocortex

66
Q

What are the characteristics of early Alzheimer’s?

A

May involve dysfunction of neurons affecting LTP and LTD prior to obvious degeneration. Memory loss primarly of recent events

67
Q

Some of the memory deficits that occur in Late stage Alzheimer’s disease may be
due to degeneration of what?

A

degeneration of the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus, although widespread
degeneration of neocortex also occurs

68
Q

In Alzheimer’s the pyramidal neurons in layer II of the entorhinal cortex exhibit what? when else does this occur in a lesser extent?

A

neurofibrillary tangles; normal aging

69
Q

What is the amount of pyramidal neurons effected in the different stages of Alzheimer’s?

A

mild- 50%, severe- 90%; memory loss is recent and older

70
Q

What combination of APOE alleles reulsts in what level of Alvheimers risk?

A

2 APOE4 67% late-onset Alzheimer’s, APOE3 and APOE4 18%, 2 APOE3 (most common, baseline) 5%, APOE2 and APOE4 5%, APOE2 and APOE3 3%, 2 APOE2 0.1%

71
Q

What is the cause of Korsakoff’s syndrome? What is damaged? Symptoms?

A

thiamin deficiency following chronic alcoholism, Damages several structures including mammillary bodies, Impairs acquistion of new memories

72
Q

Bilateral damage to the hippocampal formation results in what?

A

no acquisition of new memories, unable to encode new information about events that
happened to him (anterograde amnesia), declarative but not procedural

Neuroanatomy (17 decks)

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