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Geography IB > Core Theme 2 - Disparities In Wealth And Development > Flashcards

Core Theme 2 - Disparities In Wealth And Development Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Human Development Index (HDI) ?

A

A composite measure of development. It includes three basic components of human development

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2
Q

What are the three components of human development ?

A
  1. Life expectancy from birth
  2. Adult literacy and average number of years schooling
  3. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita (decent standard of living)
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3
Q

Why has the UN encouraged use of HDI ?

A
  • more reliable than single indicators such as GNI
  • global measure
  • composite index
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4
Q

Disadvantages of HDI

A
  • doesn’t look at social factors factors e.g. happiness

- doesn’t measure internal disparities

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5
Q

Infant mortality rate (IMR)

A

The number of children in a country who die before their first birthday per 1000 live births

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6
Q

Why is the IMR used as an indicator of development ?

A
  • high IMRs found in poorest countries
  • most causes of death in areas with high IMR are preventable
  • Where water supply, sanitation, nutrition, housing and basic healthcare are adequate, IMRs are low
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7
Q

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)

A
  • GEM reveals whether women can take an active part in economic and political life
  • tracks percentages of women in parliament, among legislators and the gender disparity in earned income, reflecting economic independence
  • Norway is ranked first in GEM (0.837) + Yemen 70th (0.127)
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8
Q

The Education Index

A
  • the Human Development Report 2009 provides an index of education
  • based on adult literacy rate + combined enrolment for primary, secondary + tertiary schools
  • Australia (0.993)
  • Niger (0.282)
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9
Q

The Human Poverty Index 1 measures poverty in developing countries. It focuses on deprivations in three dimensions:

A
  • the probability at birth of not surviving to age 40
  • knowledge, as measure by the adult illiteracy rate
  • the percentage of people without sustainable access to an improved water source and the percentage of children underweight for their age
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10
Q

Why does the Human Poverty Index 2 exist?

A

Because human deprivation varies with social + economic conditions, a separate index HPI-2 has been devised to measure poverty in selected OECD countries.

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11
Q

What are the indicators of HPI-2 ?

A
  • the probability at birth of not surviving to age 60
  • the adult functional illiteracy rate
  • the percentage of people living below the income poverty line
  • the long-term unemployment rate (12 months or more)
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12
Q

What is the difference between HDI and HPI?

A

Whilst HDI measures overall progress in a country in achieving human development, HPI reflects the distribution of progress and measures the backlog of deprivation that still exists.

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13
Q

How many people living in developing countries are hungry ?

A

815 million

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14
Q

The Food and Agriculture Organisation calculates that of the 815 million hungry:

A
  • half are farming families, surviving off marginal lands

- 25% live in shanty towns

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15
Q

How much does malnutrition contribute to the child mortality rate in LEDCs?

A

Malnutrition contributes to 53% of the 10.6 million deaths of children under five every year in developing countries

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16
Q

What are the problems with malnutrition ?

A
  • Undernourished infants lose their curiosity, motivation + will to play.
  • Millions leave school prematurely
  • Chronic hunger delays physical + mental growth of children
  • Every year that hunger continues at present levels costs five million children their lives
  • Hunger is responsible for reducing the GNP of some developing countries by 2-4%
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17
Q

What proportion of the world’s hungry people are female?

A

Seven out of ten

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18
Q

In India what proportion of children are underweight and what proportion are stunted?

A

In India, almost 45% of children under 5 years old are underweight, and over 45% are stunted

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19
Q

What is undernutrition?

A
  • Undernutrition is caused by poor absorption of nutrients as a result of repeated infectious disease.
  • It includes being underweight for one’s age, too short (stunted), too thin (wasted) and deficient in vitamins and minerals (micronutrient malnutrition)
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20
Q

6 Negative aspects of slums

A
  • high concentrations of poverty + social + economic deprivation
  • may include broken families, unemployment and economic, physical + social exclusion
  • limited access to credit + formal job markets due to stigmatisation, discrimination + geographic isolation
  • slums are recipients of industrial effluent + noxious waste
  • suffer from waterborne diseases e.g. typhoid, cholera
  • HIV / AIDS
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21
Q

Slums have the most intolerable of urban housing conditions, which frequently include:

A
  • insecurity of tenure
  • lack of basic services, especially water + sanitation
  • inadequate + sometimes unsafe buildings
  • overcrowding
  • location of fragile, dangerous or polluted land
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22
Q

Positive aspects of slums

A
  • slums are first stopping point for immigrants | provide low cost + affordable housing that lets immigrants save for their eventual absorption into urban society
  • informal entrepreneurs operating from slums have clienteles extending to the rest of the city
  • vibrant mixing of diff cultures frequently results in new forms of artistic expression
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23
Q

Case study: Ninga Mia, and Aboriginal shanty town

A
  • Ninga Mia is an Aboriginal shanty town in the shadow of one of the world’s biggest gold minds
  • A third of houses lack bathrooms
  • Houses insanitary and overcrowded
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24
Q

Whereas Australia is ninth in the world for life expectancy, those born Aboriginal can expect to:

A
  • die 20 years earlier than their non-indigenous compatriots
  • have an IMR 4x higher than general population
  • deaths from heart disease + strokes are 3x more common
  • Aborigines are 45x more likely to be victims of domestic violence
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25
Q

What does the Centre of Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE) report in Cambodia ?

A
  • many vulnerable poor communities face land tenure insecurity + forced displacement.
  • In contrast, the rich have little difficulty in acquiring land titles in high-value areas in which poor communities live. These are often acquired through ‘unofficial’ fees
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26
Q

Shanty town

A

An illegal settlement on land not owned by the householder. This makes their inhabitants vulnerable to resettlement.

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27
Q

Two theories stress how development issues in poor countries are closely linked to what has happened in rich countries. What are they?

A
  • Dependency Theory

- World systems analysis

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28
Q

What is Frank’s Dependency Theory

A
  • recourses flow from PERIPHERY of poor states to a CORE of wealthy states enriching the latter at expense of former
  • one could not survive without the other: poor nations provide natural resources + cheap labour, without which the core could not have standard of living it enjoys
  • periphery countries need core to maintain their economy providing these services
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29
Q

The dependency theory is a very different approach from most models of development:

A
  • It stressed that to be developed is to be self-reliant and to control national resources
  • Modernisation doesn’t mean westernisation. Underdeveloped countries must set goals of their own, appropriate to their own resources + values
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30
Q

What countries make up the semi-periphery?

A

Countries undergoing class struggles and social change e.g. Latin America in 1980s and Eastern Europe in 1980s-90s

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31
Q

Core and periphery

A

The concept of a developed core surrounded by an undeveloped periphery

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32
Q

Gross National Income (GNI)

A

The total value of foods and services produced within a country, together with the balance of income and payments from or to other countries

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33
Q

The gap between poorer and richer households has widened since the 1990s. What does this reflect ?

A

This reflects the impact of financial globalisation and the weaker ability of domestic policies to enhance the income position of the middle class and low-income groups

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34
Q

Between 1990 and 2004 approximately two-thirds of countries experienced an increase in income inequality. What do the statistics show ?

A

The income gap between the top and bottom 10% of wage earners increased in 70% of countries

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35
Q

What other factors could excessive income inequalities be associated with?

A
  • higher crime rates
  • lower life expectancy
  • malnutrition
  • increase likelihood of children being taken out of school in order to work
36
Q

What are Gini coefficients?

A

Income inequality is usually measured by a country’s Gini coefficient, in which 0 is perfect equality and 1 is perfect inequality

37
Q

What are Gini coefficients based upon?

A

Gini coefficients in Latin America are based on income; those in Asia are mainly based on expenditure, because reliable income data are often not available

38
Q

What does the Asian Development Bank recommend to reduce inequality?

A
  • governments focus on policies that lift the incomes of poor, e.g. improving rural access to health, education + social protection.
  • more investment in rural infrastructure could boost productivity in farming + increase job opportunities for poor
39
Q

Asian Tigers

A

Four economies (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea + Taiwan) that were the first NICs, and were associated with very high growth rates + industrialisation between the 1960s and 1990s

40
Q

Why is life expectancy increasing ?

A
  • more people than ever before have access to minimum health care, safe water supplies + sanitation.
  • most children are immunised against six major diseases of childhood
  • child mortality reducing. 21million in 1955, 10million in 1997 + projected 5million in 2025
41
Q

Life expectancy has decreased in some countries. Why?

A

Between 1975 and 1995, 16 countries with combined population of 300million saw decrease in life expectancy. Many of them were African countries in the grip of an HIV/AIDS epidemic

42
Q

How have trends in education improved ?

A
  • since 1999 the no of children not at school has fallen by 33million
  • in India the no of kids not in school fell by 15million in 2years(2001-2003)
  • in just one primary school generation, Senegal has moved from 85girls for every 100boys to an equal no of girls + boys
43
Q

Why might poorer countries countries face the imminent prospect of education reversals ?

A

The 2010 EFA report warned that 72 million children were still out of school, and a combination of slower economic growth, rising poverty and budget pressures could erode the gains of the past decade.

44
Q

How do language and ethnicity reinforce marginalisation in Turkey?

A

Turkey has made rapid progress in education, but Kurdish-speaking females from poor households average around three years in school

45
Q

Why has Haiti’s HDI reduced from 0.475 in 2006 to 0.471 in 2013?

A
  • in Jan 2010, Haiti was hit by magnitude 7 earthquake
  • affecting 3million + killing 220,000+
  • major setback in economic + social advancement
  • esp. w local businesses + industry destroyed
46
Q

Kibera Slum

A
  • world’s largest slum
  • 2.5 square km
  • population = 1 million
  • 20% children die before age 5
  • 60% adults are HIV positive
  • most families survive on 85p per day
47
Q

Mumbai

A
  • population of 16 million people
  • more than half work + live in slums
  • Dharobi: 1million+ people live in 1 square mile
  • includes a recycling plant: 80% plastic recycled
48
Q

Ship-breaking (informal sector employment)

A
  • mainly informal sector with few safety contracts
  • 90% is carried out in Bangladesh, China, India, Turkey
  • large amounts of carcinogens + toxic substances
  • an average sized shop contains up to 7tonnes of asbestos
  • majority have no waste management systems
  • also affects environment, fishing, agriculture etc..
49
Q

Changing global trade

A
  • both developing + developed countries are now specialising in manufactured goods
  • some developing countries are big exporters of services like tourism
50
Q

What is trade?

A

The exchange of goods / services for money

51
Q

What is a trading bloc?

A

A group of countries who have joined together to promote trade e.g. the EU

52
Q

What is an embargo?

A

The prohibition of trade with a particular country. An embargo might be a way of punishing a country or an attempt to force a country to change its priorities.

53
Q

What are sanctions?

A

Restrictions placed on a country’s trading. For example, after Russia-backed-forces invaded Crimea, Ukraine in 2014, the EU imposed sanctions on Russia. Russia has also retaliated.

54
Q

What is protectionism?

A

Attempts to protect domestic markets by making foreign goods less competitive. This is most commonly done through tariffs + quotas placed on foreign goods. Subsidies are also given to domestic goods.

55
Q

What are tariffs?

A

Tax / duties placed on imported goods to make them more expensive + so reduce demand

56
Q

What are quotas?

A

A limit placed on foreign goods to reduce the supply of them, therefore forcing the price up and reducing the demand for them

57
Q

What are subsidies?

A

Financial help given to companies to make their production costs less. This might be through grants, or the reduction of taxes.

58
Q

What is free trade?

A

When trade is totally free + fair, there are no protectionist policies in place. It is the aim of the World Trade Organisation to promote free trade around the world

59
Q

Was Millenium Development Goal ‘Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger’ achieved by 2015?

A
  • the proportion of people whose income is less than $1.25 a day has been cut in half
  • still 836 million people live in this kind of extreme poverty
  • as pop. grows, problem worsens
  • 1 in 9 people in world are still undernourished, whilst obesity rates increase in MEDCs
  • UN has now given itself until 2030 to achieve this goal, as part of the Global Goals for Sustainable Development
60
Q

Was Millenium Development Goal ‘Promote gender equality and empowerment of women’ achieved by 2015?

A
  • worldwide, gender equality exists at primary age, and there is 90% enrolment in primary education in developing countries
  • however, 57 million children are still out of school and globally, women earn 24% less than men for the same work
  • many regard female empowerment as highest priority: as soon as women are more educated, they can have higher aspirations + escape cycle of poverty
61
Q

Was Millenium Development Goal ‘Reduce child + maternal mortality’ achieved by 2015?

A
  • 6 million children die before their fifth birthday every year
  • 830 women die daily from preventable causes related to pregnancy
  • but some progress has been made:
  • since 1990, 17,000 fewer children are dying each day
  • maternal mortality has dropped by 45%
62
Q

Advantages of remittances + migration for source country

A
  • reduces unemployment
  • reduces pressure on schools + hospitals (if migrants take children)
  • reduces pressure on infrastructure
  • remittances go directly to family so enter economy on local level
  • migrants return with new skills (language, ICT)
  • improved relations with countries
63
Q

Disadvantages of remittances + migration for source country

A
  • remittances can fall during economic downturn
  • can create dependency
  • creates family division + conflict
  • increased dependency ratio in source country
  • brain drain: usually youngest + most skilled choose to leave
  • reduced incentive for government investment in education
  • migrants are open to extortion
64
Q

What are Free Trade Areas?

A

FTAs are created when 2 or more countries agree to eliminate barriers to trade on all goods from other members

65
Q

What is a common market?

A

When member countries trade freely in all economic resources. This means that all barriers to trade are removed.

66
Q

What was the initial aim of the EU?

A

To create a single common market for goods, services, capital and labour by eliminating all barriers to trade + hence promoting free trade between members

67
Q

What is the EU?

A

The world’s largest trading bloc and second largest economy after the USA. In 2014, the value of EU output was $18.5 trillion

68
Q

How do trading blocs advantage job creation?

A

Jobs may be created as a consequence of increased trade between member countries

69
Q

How do trading blocs advantage specialisation?

A

Knowing that they have free access to each other’s markets, members are encouraged to specialise

70
Q

How do trading blocs advantage protection?

A

Firms inside the bloc are protected from cheaper imports from outside, such as the protection of the EU shoe industry from cheap imports from China + Vietnam

71
Q

Disadvantages of trading blocs

A
  • The benefits of free trade between countries in diff. blocs are lost
  • Inefficient producers within bloc protected from more efficient ones outside bloc
  • e.g. inefficient EU farmers protected from low-cost imports from LEDCs
  • Retaliation: e.g. ‘beef wars’ when US applied £60m tariffs on EU beef in response to the EU’s ban on US beef treated with hormones
72
Q

What is emergency aid?

A

Help that is given to a country that is suffering from a natural disaster or conflict. May include food, water, tents, clothing + rescue teams to look for victims of natural disasters

73
Q

What is development aid?

A

Aid that is given to benefit a country. May be money to build a new road or port to improve infrastructure. May be money given to build new hospital / school to benefit people of country

74
Q

What is tied aid?

A

Aid that is given to a country with provision that they spend it in a particular way or follow particular policy

75
Q

What is untied aid?

A

Aid that is given to a country with no policy or spending requirements attached

76
Q

What is multilateral aid?

A

Aid that is given by multiple donors to a specific country. May be collected by an NGO or UN organisation e.g. WFP

77
Q

What is bilateral aid?

A

Aid that is given by one country directly to another country

78
Q

Why did many LEDCs fall into debt in the latter half of the 20th Century?

A
  • Many LEDSs borrowed heavily in the 1970s + early 1980s, encourage by western lenders inc. export credit agencies
  • LEDSs main exports are in primary + raw materials, which are not particularly profitable
  • Had to import more expensive manufactured goods, forcing them to borrow money
  • Lead them into credit deficits which they are still struggling their way out of
79
Q

What are Structural Adjustment Programmes?

A

SAPs were designed to cut government expenditure, reduce state intervention in the economy and promote liberalism + international trade. However some argue these measures have made situation worse

80
Q

What are the advantages of Trade?

A
  • free trade economy attracts FDI, which can create new jobs, improve infrastructure etc…
  • ensures countries dont become dependent on others
  • improve relations between foreign powers
  • allows countries to access products they dont have themselves e.g. UK and bananas
81
Q

What are the disadvantages of Trade?

A
  • many LEDCs trade in low value primary products which may cause them to build up a large trade deficit
  • TNCs can move into emerging markets and exploit resources + workers
  • trade can cause environmental damage e.g. Deforestation
82
Q

What are the advantages of Aid?

A
  • after natural disaster, food + medical aid can save lives
  • build schools + hospitals to improve quality of life
  • aid agencies may employ local workers to carry out projects: not only creates employment but teaches new skills
83
Q

What are the disadvantages of Aid?

A
  • countries can become dependent on aid money, instead of developing own economy
  • aid does not always reach most in need + may be taken by corrupt officials
  • tied aid can force countries to carry out policies not beneficial to country
  • food aid can undercut local food market + take local farmers out of business
84
Q

Benefits of Free Trade

A
  • gives local companies chance to become TNCs e.g. Pollo Campero
  • countries who participate in free trade grow faster
  • jobs created for local workers
  • workers may improve skill + education level
  • more competitive companies = lower prices
85
Q

Benefits of protectionism

A
  • producing locally reduces transport costs + air miles

- local companies take greater care of environment

86
Q

Disadvantages of free trade

A
  • TNCs take over local producers e.g. Walmart taking over local supermercados in El Salvador
  • workers often exploited by TNCs
  • countries dependent on foreign countries imports e.g. Europe relies on Russian gas

Geography IB (8 decks)

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