CORE 2 - Factors Affecting Performance

Question 1

Energy Systems

Answer 1

Energy systems allow for energy to provide to muscles, resulting in movement. This energy is in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which converts from chemical to mechanical (movement) energy.

Question 2

ALACTACID (ATP/PC)

90% MHR

Answer 2

Source of Fuel = Creatine Phosphate

Efficiency of ATP = very fast, rapid production - limited store of fuel

Duration system can operate = 10-12sec

Cause of fatigue = depletion of creatine phosphate

By-products of energy production = Heat

process/rate of recovery = Replenishment of creatine in cells connecting to phosphates, to be used as PC – full recovery in 2min

example = 100m sprint, discus

Question 3

LACTIC ACID

80-90% MHR

Answer 3

Source of Fuel = Carbohydrates - glucose in blood and glycogen in muscles

Efficiency of ATP = within 10sec - rapid production

Duration system can operate = 10-30 sec high intensity, can go up to 30 sec depending

Cause of fatigue = Accumulation of lactic acid

By-products of energy production = lactic acid (pyretic acid and hydrogen ion)

process/rate of recovery = 30min-2 hours active recovery

example = 200m sprint, 400m sprint

Question 4

AEROBIC

60-80% MHR

Answer 4

Source of Fuel = carbohydrates stored as glycogen and fats and proteins

Efficiency of ATP = slow production endless supply

Duration system can operate = endless supply at low to moderate intensity

Cause of fatigue = depletion of glycogen and fat

By-products of energy production = water and carbon dioxide

process/rate of recovery =
up to 48hrs depending on level of depletion

example = marathon, triathlon

Question 5

ALACTACID (ATP/PC) RECOVERY

Answer 5

• Within each cell, there is a small amount of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate), which allows for one explosive movement
• The phosphates are held together by high energy bonds
• ATP ‘splits’ to provide energy for a muscular contraction, by detaching a phosphate, which results in ADP (Adenosine Di Phosphate)
• CP (creatine phosphate) is stored in the cells, and is available to resynthesise ATP
• The bond between CP breaks, which releases energy so the free phosphate can join to ADP to create ATP again
• This entire process repeats until CP supply is exhausted

Question 6

LACTIC ACID RECOVERY

Answer 6

• After CP supplies are depleted, glucose (blood sugar) or stored glucose (glycogen) are used
• Glucose freely circulates in the bloodstream and is regulated by the pancreas
• When body accumulates too much blood sugar, it’s stored in liver and muscles as glycogen
• The process of using glucose and glycogen is glycolysis
• The lactic system is anaerobic, like the ATP/PC, as oxygen is not available until the blood transports O2 from lungs to the muscles, which takes a few minutes

Question 7

AEROBIC SYSTEM RECOVERY

Answer 7

• The body will primarily use glucose from pyruvic acid as its fuel source, however it can use fats and proteins if required
• Glucose – aerobic glycolysis, fats – fatty acids, proteins – amino acids
• Acetyl Coenzyme A is produced from the fuel source in the mitochondria, which then feeds into the Krebs Cycle
• Acetyl Coenzyme A is oxidised in the Krebs Cycle to produce ATP, H+ and CO2
• ATP is used by the body as energy and CO2 is exhaled from the blood (as carbon from Acetyl Co Enzyme A binds with oxygen in the blood)
• H+ continues into the next phase of production, and into the Electron Transport System. This increases the pH of the cell to reduce acidity
• The H+ and electron (e-) are used in the Electron Transport System to produce ATP and H2O
• ATP is produced from e- and H2O is produced from H+ bonding with O2 in blood

Question 8

TYPES OF TRAINING AND TRAINING METHODS

Answer 8

• aerobic: continuous, fartlek, aerobic intervals, circuit
• anaerobic: anaerobic interval
• flexibility: static, dynamic, PNF, ballistic
• strength training: free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic

Question 9

AEROBIC TRAINING

Answer 9

training focused on developing cardiorespiratory endurance, predominantly using the aerobic energy system – focuses on the ability for the athlete to absorb, transport and use oxygen for energy production.

Question 10

AEROBIC - continuous

Answer 10

• long duration 65-70% at least 20min
• e.g. jogging, swimming, cycling
• Can go as high as 80-90% MHR

Question 11

AEROBIC - fartlek

Answer 11

• intensity changes between 60-80% MHR, no rest
• uses aerobic and anaerobic system
• e.g. hill and stair sprints, different terrains

Question 12

AEROBIC - aerobic interval

Answer 12

• timed aerobic activity 60-80% MHR, with rest – good for different positions in sport – generally higher intensity because of breaks
• allows athlete to exercise for longer period at high intensity
• minimises injury due to less rest

Question 13

AEROBIC - circuit

Answer 13

• interval training with little to no rest
• greater improvements in endurance/strength
• 2 types = fixed resistance (fixed time per exercise) and individual resistance (weights and reps can change for certain duration).

Question 14

ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Answer 14

training done ‘without oxygen’, using the anaerobic energy systems – focuses on strength, power, power, speed, lactate removal and muscular endurance).

Question 15

ANAEROBIC - interval training

Answer 15

• short duration, high intensity – 85%+ MHR
• uses ATP/PC and lactic acid system
• increases tolerance to lactic acid and efficiency of cardiovascular system
• minimum 2min rest to restore creatine phosphate
• betters speed, acceleration, power and agility
• e.g. marathon runner utilises system to increase overall fitness

Question 16

FLEXIBILITY TRAINING

Answer 16

the range of movement/motion at your joints and the body’s ability to move freely, it helps to prevent soft tissue injury, and can in some cases strengthen the muscle when applied with isometrics.
Allows for 
-	preventing soreness and injury 
-	muscles to stretch 
-	improved coordination of muscle groups
-	posture and stress on joints

Question 17

FLEXIBILITY - static

Answer 17

• stretching a muscle to a length that is uncomfortable, not pianful for a set period of time
• 15-30 sec – most is 30-60sec
• warm ups and cool downs
• e.g. gymnastics, acrobatics, body building

Question 18

FLEXIBILITY - ballistic

Answer 18

• stretching involving a bounce or swing, often using body force to stretch further than normal ROM
• risk of injury, overriding the stretch reflex
• can cause macro or micro tears
• most suited for sports requiring bouncing or swinging movements e.g. gymnastics, skipping, dance

Question 19

FLEXIBILITY - PNF

Answer 19

• lengthening a muscle against resistance
• incorporates static stretching through using isometric contractions and periods of rest i.e. stretching hamstring up for 30 sec, then isometric contraction of heel against object, then holding stretch again.
• used in rehab
• muscle is stronger when antagonist is isometrically contracted immediately before
• suited to sports where a joint may be forcefully be taken beyond normal ROM e.g. rugby, American football

Question 20

FLEXIBILITY - dynamic

Answer 20

• movements taking joints through ROM to produce stretches within specific muscles
• controlled movement, guided by the stretch reflex
• does not force muscle past natural ROM
• imitates movement used in sports
• suited for sports replicating movement used in performance e.g. soccer, rugby, martial arts

Question 21

STRENGTH TRAINING

Answer 21

Any training done to improve overall strength. Strength training affects performance through hypertrophy (growth in myocyte cross-section of muscle) and causes large amounts of stress on the body due to minor tears in the muscle. *sets, reps, resistance and rest

3 major types of muscle actions related to strength training:

• Isotonic – muscle length changes when lifting a constant resistance through a full range of motion (concentric = shortens/against gravity, eccentric = lengths/with gravity)
• Isometric – muscle develops tension but does not change length
• Isokinetic – constant pressure on the muscles (resistance does not change throughout the entire movement)

3 types of strength training focuses
• Absolute strength – maximum force that can be generated by a muscle
• Power – ability to exert force in a short period of time
• Endurance – ability of muscles to repeat muscular contractions against resistance

Question 22

STRENGTH - free and fixed weights

Answer 22

• lifting dumbells, barbless etc – body doesn’t just develop major muscles, but smaller ones utilised when stabilising movements.
• Free weights allow for greater range of motion than machines and allow for symmetry between both sides of the body
• Lifting free weights improves athlete’s co-ordination by making the neuromuscular pathways better (mimic sport)
• Allows for better joint strength

Question 23

STRENGTH - elastic

Answer 23

• various forms of elastics to provide resistance, developing strength – intensity is limited and resistance increases with stretch
• resistance is felt during full range of motion (contrast to free weights where resistance is stronger going up)
• often used in rehabilitation for weaker muscles
• portable, space effective
• good for mimicking particular sports, however you can’t develop a lot of strength with them
• best suited for sports that use smaller muscles e.g. javelin, darts

Question 24

STRENGTH - hydraulic

Answer 24

• provide a double concentric contraction; working two muscle groups (antagonist muscles)
• enables correct positioning and proper movement
• great for targeting specific muscles and rehab
• Mainly used in rehab – disadvantage is expensive

Question 25

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

Answer 25

Principles of training guide trainers in selecting appropriate types and methods in creating sessions that improve performance – helping to ensure the athlete is reaching optimal performance.

• progressive overload
• specificity
• reversibility
• variety
• training thresholds
• warm up and cool down

Question 26

PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD

Answer 26

• when the workload of a session progressively increases and adapts to training
• too much = fatigue/injury
• not enough = plateau in performance

Question 27

SPECIFICITY

Answer 27

• adaptations to training are specific
• Training must be specific to muscle groups, energy systems, fitness components and skills of athletes
• involves physiological adaptations only occurring in response to stress placed on body and only sections that experience stress.
• E.g. weight lifter using ATP/PC system will train to improve anaerobically

Question 28

REVERSIBILITY

Answer 28

• when training stops, adaptations are lost – at a similar rate to when they are gained
• during injury, athletes are required to moderate exercises to suit needs
• avoided by maintaining same level of training during off-season
• applies to all aspects of training i.e. aerobic/anaerobic fitness, strength, endurance, power and flexibility.

Question 29

VARIETY

Answer 29

• Ensuring sessions use a range of methods and exercises
• allows for prevention of boredom, loss of motivation, reducing chance of injury and a full development of fitness
• ensures athlete is on track for goals and challenged

Question 30

TRAINING THRESHOLDS

Answer 30

• level of intensity needed to stress body enough to cause an adaptation or improvement in performance
• thresholds are measured by intensity and can be either a %MHR or %VO2 max
• comprises of aerobic and anaerobic threshold
• Minimum exercise efforts needed to improve fitness.
• Aerobic threshold = 60 – 80% MHR. Anaerobic Threshold = 80 – 100% MHR.
• Aerobic training threshold: improvement in body’s ability to use oxygen during physical activity
• Anaerobic training threshold: maximum speed/effort an athlete can maintain and still have no increase in lactic acid

Question 31

WARM-UP AND COOL DOWN

Answer 31

Warm up: first phase of training

• increases body/muscle temperature to prevent injury
• stimulates cardiovascular system, increasing oxygen to muscles
• Mental preparation for training/games

Cool down: end of training

• returns body temperature to normal, through decrease of intensity and stretch of muscles
• dispersion of lactic acid accumulation in muscles

Question 32

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS IN RESPONSE TO TRAINING

Answer 32

• resting heart rate
• stroke volume and cardiac output
• oxygen uptake and lung capacity
• haemoglobin level
• muscle hypertrophy
• effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres

Question 33

RESTING HEART RATE

Answer 33

• Resting heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute at rest
• Resting heart rate declines as a result of training. It is not uncommon for elite athletes to have resting heart rates as low as 30-40bpm
• The left ventricle’s chamber size and the myocardial wall thickness increase allowing stronger, more efficient heart beats.

Resting heat rate happens due to

• increase in stroke volume – the amount of blood pumped out with each contraction, meaning the heart has a lower contraction while transporting the same volume of blood.
• increase in haemoglobin levels – resulting in more oxygen being transported per mL or L of blood, so the body transports less blood.

Question 34

MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY

Answer 34

• Refers to an increase in muscle size of the muscle cross-sectional area
• Initially, muscle fibres increase in size as more fluid goes to the muscle
• As a response to extended training, muscles will increase in size again as fibres adapt to the training load
• Muscles become stronger because increase in myofibrils, which contract to produce movement

Question 35

EFFECT ON FAST/SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRES

Answer 35

The composition of fast and slow twitch muscle fibres is originally genetically determined, however can be manipulated with specific training.

Fast twitch = explosive and shorter periods of time – white in colour as they don’t require oxygen e.g. sprinter
- Usually uses anaerobic energy system, therefore training must be anaerobic to improve composition of fast twitch fibres.

Slow twitch = longer/slower contraction for longer durations – red in colour as they require oxygen e.g. marathon runner
- Usually uses aerobic energy system, therefore training must be aerobic to improve composition of fast twitch fibres.

Question 36

MOTIVATION

Answer 36

• A want to succeed, can be positive/negative
• Motivation is an internal energy force that determines all aspects of our behaviour, it also impacts on how we think, feel and interact with others. In sport, high motivation is widely accepted as an essential prerequisite in getting athletes to fulfil their potential.
• positive and negative
• intrinsic and extrinsic

Question 37

MOTIVATION - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

Answer 37

• positive:
• recognition of praise and possible award for good performance
• When an individual’s performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviours such as praise or winning. Eg Crowd appreciation, coach praise, incentives etc.
• It’s more effective than negative reinforcement, challenges athlete to improve, is more sustainable and better on an ongoing basis.
• If the positive reinforcement goes, the athlete’s effort decreases.
• An example of positive motivation includes, if a coach says the player will get a bonus $500 if he wins. Athletes who utilise positive motivation are more likely to take risks, be creative and perform under pressure.
• negative:
• feedback received from an athlete when behaviour is unacceptable e.g. threats for poor performance
• Improvement of performance based on fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations. Eg Threats (dropped, benched, pushups/punishment)
• If used properly with positive motivation, can provide a good and effective balance.
• Disadvantages include long term destruction of self confidence, athletes will play safe and not take risks from fear of failure, choking, indecision and lack of creativity
• For example and athlete who beats themselves up for poor performance is negative and intrinsic, while if a coach says the player will be made to do a 30 minute anaerobic training session if they lose, this is a negative extrinsic motivator.

Question 38

MOTIVATION - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC

Answer 38

• extrinsic:
• material objects gained with success; money prizes, or to please other i.e. coaches, parents, friends
• When the individual’s inner state is modified by sources from outside the person. Eg Cash rewards, coaches pep talk, making a team, praise.
• It can add to intrinsic motivation.
• Examples of extrinsic motivation is an athlete who wants to do well to earn more money or to hear the fans cheer their name. Extrinsic motivation is often provided in sports with large crowds, such as football or basketball where the crowd sings and cheers their team on (the home ground advantage).
• Isn’t as effective, doesn’t last as long and wont help athletes through major goals.
• for example Individual engages in an exercise program solely to receive a reward or avoid punishment
• Intrinsic:
• occurs within an individual, the self-driven want to succeed
• Motivation that comes from within the athlete them self
• It’s most effective, lasts longer, and is self driven.
• An example of intrinsic motivation is an athlete who wants to do well for the satisfaction found in achieving a personal best, or an athlete who is motivated by the feeling of hitting a good shot.
• Intrinsic motivation is particularly important for sports such as swimming, cycling, and marathon running, as the motivation needs to be sustained for long periods.
• It includes goal setting, personal reward/satisfaction, etc.

Question 39

ANXIETY

Answer 39

ANXIETY = is fear or apprehension generated in anticipation of confronting a situation or event perceived to be potentially threatening – PSYCHOLOGICAL
• If psychological problem is persistent, it will lead to poor performance (e.g. lack of sleep)
• Athletes and coaches must find the cause of anxiety and develop rituals to decrease anxiety

TRAIT ANXIETY – personality = The athlete’s general predisposition to perceive a situation (i.e. personality trait). Those who display high levels of anxiety see situations as threatening.
• differences between people in terms of their tendency to experience state anxiety in response to the anticipation of a threat. People with a high level of trait anxiety experience more intense degrees of state anxiety to specific situations than most people do and experience anxiety toward a broader range of situations or objects than most people. Thus, trait anxiety describes a personality characteristic rather than a temporary feeling
• high trait anxiety = focus on chance of failure, low trait anxiety = likely to focus on success

STATE ANXIETY – situation = Refers to the emotional response of the athlete to a particular situation (e.g. fear, worry, tension, nervousness, apprehension).
• The athletes emotional state at any given time - variable from situation to situation
• characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to a fear or danger of a particular situation. State anxiety can contribute to a degree of physical and mental paralysis, preventing performance of a task or where performance is severely affected, such as forgetting movements during a dance or gymnastic routine, to breaking in sprint or swim starts or missing relatively easy shots at goal i.e. pressure situations.
• For some athletes sports anxiety can be a valuable motivator, e.g. contact sports such as rugby, whereas other sports require a very low level of anxiety for successful performances, e.g. archery, pistol shooting.
• Harder to control and involves rehearsal and relaxation

Question 40

SOURCES OF STRESS

Answer 40

Stress = Normal physiological/physical response to events that make you feel threatened or upset. It’s the body’s ability to protect itself – stress can be good or bad. Support can decrease stress.

Sources of stress:
• vary from person to person and any and every source can impact on an athlete’s performance
• The stimulation of stress in an individual depends on how they view the situation. How a person views the situation is affected by a variety of factors.
• An athlete’s past experience can make a particular situation more stressful for them than it would be for another. For example, an athlete who injured themselves during a gymnastic performance, will have more stress when they perform the same routine after rehabilitation than someone who had never injured themselves doing the routine.

Sources of stress:
•	Self-expectation
•	Situations 
•	Crowds 
•	Previous experience
•	Previous failure

Question 41

OPTIMUM AROUSAL

Answer 41

AROUSAL = Arousal is your level of excitement and readiness to perform.
• Arousal can have positive and negative effects on your performance.
• Your performance will be best at an optimum level of arousal. After this level, performance gets worse as you become anxious and nervous.

OPTIMUM AROUSAL = Required to ensure athletes achieve their best
• Arousal is different to anxiety as it is a physiological response similar to getting excited before an event.
• Arousal is about getting ready for action and often causes an increase in heart rate and blood pressure as well as heightened neural activity.
• It is often referred to as, be being “in the zone” or “psyched up.” It is about waking your body up so that it is ready to perform.
• Arousal can be both positive and negative for performance, depending on the level and the type of performance

High intensity contact sports have a higher optimal arousal level than low intensity non-contact sports. This means that a rugby league player requires a higher arousal level than an archer or gymnast. The rugby player will not perform as well if his arousal is not high enough, or is too high

• over arousal = poor
  cause of muscle tension
• under arousal = poor performance

Question 42

PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION AND MANAGE ANXIETY

Answer 42

There are many psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety that athletes use. They are often done before competition to help the athlete release nerves and focus on the task they are about to perform

• concentration and attention skills (focus)
• mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery
• relaxation techniques
• goal setting

Question 43

CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTION

Answer 43

• Requires the athlete to focus on relevant cues and ignore irrelevant cues
• Ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can focus on thinking about doing
• Improved concentration positively affects confidence and levels of arousal
• Athletes must focus on the process rather than the outcome

Associative concentration: Occurs when a performer concentrates on bodily function and feeling (e.g. heart rate, breathing rate). Could occur in a diver.

Dissociative concentration: Occurs when athlete concentrates on external cue (e.g. people, cars, environments). Could occur in marathon runner.

Attention is:
• Selective: focus on some things, but not others
• Shiftable: can change voluntarily or involuntarily
• Divisible: may maintain more than one focus at the same time

Question 44

MENTAL REHEARSAL, VISUALISATION, IMAGERY

Answer 44

Mental Rehearsal = the ability to perform a skill in your mind that will enhance performance 
Mental rehearsal is successful because imagining an activity creates electrical activity in the muscles involved in the movement and the muscle is actually contracting without moving. 
- Advantages:
•	Learn a new skill
•	Gain confidence
•	Control anxiety and arousal levels
•	Motivate
•	Concentration improves
•	Improved performance

RELAXATION TECHNIQUES
• Used to calm athletes down
• Decreases anxiety and controls arousal
• Useful before/ during or after an event
• Used before mental imagery session

Every athlete uses a different relaxation technique. They include:
• Centred breathing – lengthening breaths to decrease breathing rate and heart rate. Helps to decrease anxiety and arousal
• Progressive muscular relaxation – gradually contracts muscles and then relaxes them. Can decrease anxiety and arousal
• Music – can relax or psyche an athlete up. Can decrease or increase arousal
• Mental relaxation – reducing respiratory rate and emptying the mind of distractions. Helps focus athlete and decrease anxiety

GOAL SETTING
helps improve an athlete’s motivation and enables them to measure progress. Goals can be either performance or behaviour oriented and can be both long and/or short term.

• long-term goals = is important as they give the major purpose to training and performance. Short-term goals should be used to help monitor progress and provide benchmarks as the athlete progresses towards the long-term goals.
• Setting performance goals that relate directly to performance helps the athlete to focus on particular aims or objectives to achieve as they improve their performance. Some examples include: running 100m in less than 10 sec or a soccer player getting all their shots on target forcing the goal keeper to make a save.
• Other goal setting needs to focus on behaviour as this can impact motivation, training output and performance. Examples of behaviour goals include: completing 3 training sessions per week outside of team training, or ensuring adequate sleep every night.
• Goal setting needs the goals to be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time specific. An example of this is running 100m in less that 10 sec within the next 6 months is specific, can be measured, is attainable if you are already running 100m in the low 10s, relevant if you are in a sport that requires running 100m quickly, such as a sprinter and time specific.

Question 45

PRE PERFORMANCE INCLUDING CARB LOADING

Answer 45

• Time for digestion (3 – 4 hours big meal, 1 – 2 hours small meal)
• Avoid foods high in fats and proteins as they take longer to digest
• Eat mostly complex carbs
• Drink adequate fluid
• Some coaches monitor weight for an increase (per gram of glycogen it stores 2.6g water)
• The pre-competition meal provides a final opportunity to top up the muscle and liver fuel stores. A high-carbohydrate, low fat meal is the best choice

Examples of pre-event meals

• Cereal + milk or yoghurt
• Toast, muffins or crumpets with jam or honey s
• Canned spaghetti on toast
• Pancakes with syrup or honey

CARB LOADING

• The process used by athletes to ensure glycogen stores in muscle and the liver are at their maximum.
• They do this by tapering training levels and consuming large amounts of complex carbohydrates in the week before competition
• Used in events 90min or longer - allows for maintenance of higher aerobic intensities
• Carbohydrate loading benefits performance that would normally deplete glycogen stores and delays the onset of fatigue caused by a greater reliance on fat to produce ATP in the aerobic energy system
• For carb loading to be effective, it must be combined with an exercise taper, where intensity and duration of exercise should decrease 72 hours prior to an event.

Question 46

DURING PERFORMANCE

Answer 46

Hydration

• During performance an athlete needs to maintain hydration. Hydration aids performance and dehydration hinders performance, decreasing concentration and reducing the body’s ability to function
• 1L for every hour of activity
• Powerade/Gatorade: These drinks provide additions glucose that goes into the blood and is transported to the muscle for use in either the aerobic or lactic acid energy systems
• e.g. AFL game might consume Gatorade to replace fluid and salt lost through sweat, and in order to gain glucose to aid performance by delaying fatigue caused by glycogen depletion.

Food

• carbohydrates are used to provide the body with extra fuel
• e.g. fruit bars, confectionary, sandwiches (50g per hour)

Question 47

POST PERFORMANCE

Answer 47

Goals post-performance

• refueling the muscle and liver glycogen (carbohydrate) stores
• replacing the fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat
• manufacturing new muscle protein, red blood cells and other cellular components as part of the repair and adaptation process
• allowing the immune system to handle the damage and challenges caused by the exercise bout

Refuelling

• The major dietary factor in post exercise refueling is the amount of carbohydrate consumed. Depending on the fuel cost of the training schedule or the need to fuel up to race, a serious athlete may need to consume between 7-12 g of carbohydrate per kg body weight each day
• carbohydrates should be confused within the first hour of completion e.g. chocolate milk

Rehydration
- Athletes should aim to consume 125-150% of their estimated fluid losses in the 4-6 hours after exercise

Nutrition plan must aim to:

• Replace glycogen stores by eating 50 – 100g carbs within 30 mins of completing exercise
• Repeat carb intake every 2 hours – high GI foods
• Rehydrate to replace lost fluids
• Don’t eat high fat or protein foods
• Avoid alcohol

Question 48

SUPPLEMENT. - VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Answer 48

Vitamins - inorganic compounds, essential to maintaining bodily functions

• B vitamins optimise energy production and build/repair muscle tissue, and are also vital for red blood cell production.
• Vitamin D is needed for adequate calcium absorption and promote bone health. Also regulates homeostasis of nervous system and skeletal muscle.
• Antioxidants (vitamin C, E and Beta Carotene) protect cell membranes from oxidative damage.

The most common vitamins and minerals found to be of concern in athletes’ diets are calcium and vitamin D, the B vitamins, iron, zinc, magnesium, as well as some antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, β-carotene, and selenium

The important vitamins are: B vitamins, vitamin D, C, E and beta-carotene.
• B vitamins are a group of vitamins that optimise energy production as well as the building and repair of muscle tissue. B vitamins are also vital in red blood cell production.
• Vitamin D is needed for adequate calcium absorption and promotes bone health. It also helps regulate the homeostasis of the nervous system and skeletal muscle.
• The antioxidants (Vitamin C, E and beta-carotene) help protect cell membranes from oxidative damage. More antioxidants are needed because exercise increases oxygen consumption, which increases oxidative damage.

Minerals – inorganic substances found in the body, necessary for its efficienct functioning
- The primary minerals low in the diets of athletes, especially female athletes, are calcium, iron, zinc, and magnesium. Low intakes of these minerals are often due to energy restriction or avoidance of animal products

Iron: Used in haemoglobin, which is diminished will deprive muscles of O2 and decrease performance.
- Best absorbed when eaten with vitamin C
- Helps carry O2 to cells
- Prevents anaemia (those at risk: endurance and female athletes)
- Endurance athletes may require additional iron
Calcium: Required for bone repair, growth and development.
- Inadequate calcium leads to osteoporosis
- Those at risk: females (amenorrhea leads to loss of calcium from bone tissue)

Sodium: Normal diet usually adequate in salt, so only those who train vigorously.

• Too much salt leads to hypertension
• Sodium assists in nerve transmission and muscle contraction

Zinc: Required for growth and repair of muscle tissue.

Question 49

SUPPLEMENT. - PROTEIN

Answer 49

Protein is a chain of amino acids and provides the building blocks for all the cells in the body. protein has an important role in the human body as it is necessary for building and repairing tissues

• Important in building and repairing muscle tissues
• Energy source when both carbs and fat stores are depleted
• Made up of amino acids, which are produced in the body, but also need to be consumed for bodily functions
• Amino acid supplements claim to: reduce fatigue, increase muscle size, improve recovery
• Body cannot store extra protein, and excess may interfere with kidney function and cause calcium to be excreted out of urine, which increases risk of osteoporosis
• Protein consumed within 1hr of resistance training may improve recovery and hypertrophy

Question 50

SUPPLEMENT. - CAFFEINE

Answer 50

• Has stimulant properties to increase concentration and awareness, by speeding up the nervous system and heart rate
• Allows people to concentrate for 1 – 3 hrs
• Theorised to cause the body to burn more fats and less carbs as it forces the muscles to utilise as much fat as possible and delays depletion of glycogen
• Large amounts can create anxiety, and cause athletes to be shaky
• Athletes should dilute caffeine or drink high levels of water

Question 51

SUPPLEMENT. - CREATINE PRODUCTS

Answer 51

Creatine: Organic acid which combines with phosphate to create phosphocreatine which synthesises ATP molecules. Commonly found in meat, fish and chicken. May cause greater adaptations to training (e.g. muscle hypertrophy)

• Consuming large doses of creatine increases the storage in the muscle, improving performance in short term events
• Supplementing creatine can resolve in 1 – 3% performance improvement in a single event, and a 5 – 15% improvement in repeated activities
• Increasing creatine allows for increased overall workload and faster recovery

Question 52

RECOVERY STRATEGIES

Answer 52

• physiological e.g. cool down, hydration
• neural strategies e.g. hydrotherapy, massage
• tissue damage strategies e.g. cryotherapy
• psychological strategies e.g. relaxation

Question 53

RECOVERY - PHYSIOLOGICAL STRATEGIES

Answer 53

Cool down: A series of low intensity exercises/active recovery completed straight after training or competition. The purpose of a cool down is to reduce HR and metabolism to how it was prior to exercise.
- Active recovery or “active rest” is sort of a hybrid between resting and exercising. It involves purposely exercising at a low-intensity in order to assist the body to recover from competition, high-intensity exercise, or muscle soreness.
Benefits of cool down:
- Disperses lactic acid and reduces wastes in the body by continuing the pumping of the heart to avoid retention of wastes in the muscles
- Prevents DOMS, muscle spasms and cramps

Hydration: Consumption of enough liquid after exercise to replace any fluids lost during training or competition. Athletes competing would weigh themselves before and after the event to determine the amount of fluid lost.
- Hydration should be completed by drinking 600ml of water for every 500g lost in body weight. It could also involve drinking a 500ml diluted sports drink to replace electrolytes lost.
Benefits of hydration:
- An increased blood volume assists in removal of wastes
- Increases water in blood which is needed for glycogen storage

Question 54

RECOVERY - NEURAL STRATEGIES

Answer 54

Aim to relax and relieve tension in muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of exercise

Hydrotherapy
- Hydrotherapy is the use of water in the process of recovery. Hydrotherapy differs from swimming because it involves exercises that you do in a warm-water pool. The water temperature is usually 33–36ºC, which is warmer than a typical swimming pool.
- Although the effects of hydrostatic pressure exerted in the body during water immersion may be beneficial, the temperature of water the body is exposed in is thought to influence the success of recovery interventions.
Benefits of hydrotherapy:
- Rapid dispersal of wastes
- Reduces muscle soreness to promote faster recovery

Massage

• Used post-performance as an extension from the cool down which focuses of body and mental relaxation.
• Massage after hard sessions/games can help to facilitate recovery by minimising the effects of fatigue, reducing muscle tension, and lowering stress levels.
• It increases blood circulation in localised areas (promoting recovery) and the mechanical warming and stretching of soft tissues provides temporary flexibility gains

Benefits of massage:

• Helps remove waste products and increases nutrient delivery
• Mental relaxation
• Minimises effect of fatigue
• Decreases muscle tension and relaxes nerves

Question 55

RECOVERY - TISSUE DAMAGE STRATEGIES

Answer 55

Cryotherapy: Removes heat from a damaged tissue and decreases inflammation by causing vasoconstriction and decreases pain.

Benefits of cryotherapy:

• Restores damaged tissue
• Decreases pain

Ice pack therapy: Used in first 24 – 48 hours post soft tissue injury and lowers local temperature causing a reduction in metabolism rate.

Benefits of ice pack therapy:

• Decreases demand for O2 meaning less blood pumped and decreases pain
• Removes waste products

Question 56

RECOVERY - PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES

Answer 56

Psychological strategies focus on mental processes and are used to either calm the athletes brain activity or to stimulate them. They frequently aim to reduce anxiety in order to allow the brain to relax, but can be used to focus the athlete’s thoughts on the upcoming event.

Relaxation

• An anxious athlete may use relaxation techniques before competition in order to reduce nervousness and allow them to focus on the task.
• After competition, particularly during a transition or off-season phase, athletes will use relaxation and other psychological strategies in order to help rejuvenate their whole body, including their mental function.
• Other psychological strategies used include, debriefing, rest days and sleep

Question 57

SKILL AC. COGNITIVE

Answer 57

COGNITIVE: first stage of skill learning, focused on mental processing of information, thinking and understanding on the task required – feedback must be continuously provided.

• Being able to ‘conceptualise’ (get a clear mental picture) of the task is essential for good movement reproduction. Demonstrations of the skill gives a visual overview
• The movements in this stage are jerky, halting and poorly timed
• Demo’s, video’s and info highlighting the important points can help guide the learner through the skill
• Coaches should avoid ‘information overload’, keep instructions and demos short and simple. Too much information causes frustration due to info overload.
• It is expected that the learner will encounter problems, how much can depend on the difficulty of the skill
• Learners should receive continuous feedback on their progress
• If they are experiencing too much difficulty, the coach could break the skill up into smaller parts for practice
- 20-40 min 3-5 times a week is a great amount of practice for learning a new skill

Question 58

SKILL ACQ. ASSOCIATIVE

Answer 58

ASSOCIATIVE: The second stage of learning, places emphasis on practice and connecting ideas. The athlete needs to repeat the movement to enhance synchronisation of their mind and muscles – feedback still necessary.

• This stage is longer than the cognitive stage
• This stage is identified by an emphasis put on practice
• Once the learner has acquired of what the skill is, needs to repeat the movement to enhance the synchronization of the mind and muscles
• Error’s still occur, but are smaller and less frequent then the cognitive stage
• Feedback is still essential. During this stage the athlete can begin to provide some of their own feedback, but they still benefit from immediate feedback concerning their technique provided by a coach as well as knowledge of results. The athlete can adjust their technique and begin to increase the complexity of the context in which the skill is executed. For example, hitting or kicking a moving ball, rather than a stationary one.
• A sense of fluency develops as the learners ‘kinesthesis’ (sense of movement) improves
• Learners can remain at this stage for a long time (even years)
• During the associative stage the athlete needs lots of practice that is whole and normally massed, though if they get bored distributed should be used.

Question 59

SKILL ACQ. AUTONOMOUS

Answer 59

AUTONOMOUS: Ability to automatically execute skill in a properly sequenced matter, through instinct

• The execution of the skill will be properly sequenced and performed instinctively
• The performer has joined many discrete skills (subroutines) that comprise the action
• It will be a fluent and pleasing execution of the skill (temporal patterning – the ability to link sub routines together)
• It looks good because it is efficient, with the muscle groups working in order and producing only the necessary movements at the required time
• The most important feature of this stage is that they are able to attend to other cues while giving little thought to how to perform the skill e.g. In a netball game they will think about who to pass to rather then thinking about how to perform the skill of passing
• Practice is still important in during this stage, but is more focused on simulating the competition situation
• Training should incorporate pressure drills, which will help the player adapt their skills in the real performance
• Psychological skills training can be useful in this stage – especially when dealing with anxiety in competition

Question 60

PERSONALITY

Answer 60

PERSONALITY = An individuals’ characteristics, developing as a result of infinite social interactions and learning experiences throughout life.

• Certain aspects of personality tend to be favourable with certain learning environments for e.g. elite coaches tend to select athletes not only with superior ability but those who also possess a positive learning attributes such as determination, enthusiasm and dedication.

Question 61

PRIOR EXPERIENCE

Answer 61

PRIOR EXPERIENCE = The ease to develop a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired.

• This prior experience has the potential to accelerate the learning process.
• Some suggest that this transfer of learning is an important reality in the acquisition of new skills.
• The degree to which prior experience influences skill acquisition and ultimately performance is variable among learners.
• If an individual has participated in an activity which involves similar qualities, such as the hand eye coordination found in hockey, they may be able to learn the skills involved in other sports such as cricket or golf more effectively.

Question 62

CONFIDENCE

Answer 62

CONFIDENCE = As individuals learn new skills and experience success, they develop a sense of self-belief in their ability to perform.

• Some level of confidence is internally generated, based on how the learner sees themselves (related to their personality). This confidence will then pass into the next level of learning.
• By learning and performing skills from a simple to a complex level confidence will begin to rise as the individual is more likely to experience success as they develop their skills.

Question 63

HEREDITY

Answer 63

HEREDITY = Genetic characteristics inherited from parents

• These are unchangeable and limit the dimensions of our potential.
• The environment determines if we can reach the limits set be heredity. Specific heredity characteristics influence the potential for success in specific sports/skills.
• The characteristics of an activity vary in relation to the speed of movements and the length of time they are performed.
• Percentage of fast twitch slow twitch muscle fibres: Genetically predetermined, but can be manipulated and enhanced. Slow twitch = longer and endurance. Fast twitch = faster and intense.
• Somatotype: Ectomorph (linearity), mesomorph (muscularity) and endomorph (roundness) are preferred by different sports. E.g. long-distance runner = ectomorph, sprinter = mesomorph.
• Gender: Higher levels of testosterone in males which contributes to increased power and strength.

Question 64

ABILITY

Answer 64

ABILITY = The ease at which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine

• We often call these individuals gifted or talented as they often show ease and precision when executing a skill.
• Ability can be seen in the way in which an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills.
• Ability incorporates a range of factors, such as sense of acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence which combine to allow the individual to do readily what is intended.

Question 65

NATURE OF SKILL

Answer 65

A skill can be: open or closed, gross or fine, discrete, serial or continuous, and self or externally paced. Each classification sits along a continuum, with skills varying in their degree of any selection. Skills are classified by selecting one from each choice

open closed

• OPEN: Performed in a constantly changing environment (weather, opposition, surface) e.g. kicking a goal in AFL
• CLOSED: performed in the same conditions every time i.e. a stable and predictable environment e.g. weightlifting

gross/fine

• GROSS: skills that use large muscles to conduct large, more general movements e.g. walking, running, jumping, kicking
• FINE: skills involving smaller groups of muscles to conduct smaller/controlled movements e.g. throwing darts or catching a tennis ball.

discrete/serial/continuous

• DISCRETE: have a clearly defined start and finish e.g. forward roll
• SERIAL: involve a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill. Athletes would learn the skill in different stages to focus on the discrete aspects before putting the action together. (E.g. layup in basketball)
• CONTINUOUS: have no distinct beginning or end and appear ongoing and unbroken for a certain duration – repetitive in nature. (E.g. running)

self/externally paced

• SELF: are movements where the athlete determines the timing and speed of execution. (E.g. kicking a football)
• EXTERNALLY PACED: involve factors which are beyond the control of the athlete E.g. A batsman in cricket will have to swing at the ball when the bowler decides to bowl to them, his control over this external factor is minimal

Question 66

THE PERFORMANCE ELEMENTS

Answer 66

It is vital for performance that an athlete can perform their skills under pressure and respond to their environment. Decision making, strategic and tactical development are performance elements that enhance an athletes ability to perform.

decision making
- the decisions made by an athlete during performance e.g. whether to shoot or pass the ball in soccer.

strategic and tactical development

• STRATEGY = the overall method used to achieve the goal, commonly winning the competition and includes the basic movements and skills an athlete should use.
• TACTICS = revolve around gaining an advantage over the opposing player, usually connected with decision-making. (E.g. moving into a specific open space)

Question 67

PRACTICE METHOD

Answer 67

massed
MASSED = continuous practice session, with smaller rest periods than practice intervals and works well for skilled and motivated athletes. E.g. suits skills that are exciting or frequently used in performance, such as uneven bar transitions, or passing in football.

distributed
- DISTRIBUTED = short periods of practice with longer breaks from the skill rehearsal, which can be rehearsal of another skill or a break for feedback. E.g. used for less skilled and less motivated athletes and is helpful in teaching boring skills, such as passing a basketball.

whole
- WHOLE = when the skill is practiced in its entirety and is often used for discrete and continuous skills. This practice method is good for teaching swimming or running.

part
- PART = when the skill is broken down into its smaller parts and each part is practiced in isolation before being joined together. It is often used for teaching serial skills that have smaller skills that make up the larger skill, such as a basketball layup.

Question 68

FEEDBACK

Answer 68

any sensory information about an action

• INTERNAL
  • information received naturally from the senses as a result of movement e.g. When passing a basketball, the athlete is aware of his or her own legs, shoulders, arms and fingers moving through the air.
  • The athlete is aware of the ball leaving the fingers, and can see and hear it being caught by a partner.
  • The athlete thus perceives information about the performance without the use of equipment, devices or other people.

EXTERNAL
• information that is provided from outside the performer’s natural sensory awareness of the immediate action. - This external feedback might be the coach’s voice, the scoreboard, video analysis or the cheer of the crowd.
• The external feedback supplements the performer’s natural internal feedback. In some cases, there is no external feedback.

Two types
1. Knowledge of results = information that is provided externally after the completion of the action. It is based on the outcome of the performance or on what caused the outcome. It is particularly helpful when learning a new skill E.g. percentage of goals scored

2. Knowledge of Performance = information that is received either internally or externally concerning the movement executed, it does not inform about the movement success (as KR does). Rather, it informs about the performance of the movement pattern itself, or how it looked E.g. coach’s opinion on height of ball toss in tennis serve

CONCURENT
• received during the performance of a skill and occurs simultaneously with skill execution
• E.G. the feel of a ball as it hits a table tennis bat, or the sight of the goalkeeper moving to the left before a penalty stroke.

DELAYED FEEDBACK
• provided after the performance, and is therefore received too late to produce a response at the time.
• e.g. A player jumping to head the ball in soccer cannot change the body’s position in the air when the ball is 1 metre from the head. In this case, the correctness of the action is gauged after the ball has been headed.

Question 69

ASSESSMENT OF SKILL AND PERFORMANCE

Answer 69

important for monitoring progress and providing guidance for future training. Knowing the characteristics of skilled performers helps to guide the coach in skill assessment to ensure performance is moving towards mastery of the particular skill.

• characteristics of skilled performers
• objective and subjective performance measures
• validity and reliability of tests
• personal versus prescribed judging criteria

Question 70

CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILLED PERFORMERS

Answer 70

kinaesthetic sense
• refers to the sensory information received from the body about their body position and awareness of limbs during a movement.
• A skilled athlete’s neuromuscular pathways are trained to ‘feel’ the movement resulting in better coordination and greater ability to make corrections and modifications while executing the movement.

anticipation
• A skilled performer is capable of predicting what might happen next, by reading cues, and choosing the appropriate response to the action.
• This gives skilled athletes an advantage over other performers as they can position themselves in preparation for the next phase of play to counteract an opponent’s move.

consistency
• Skilled performers demonstrate greater consistency resulting in fewer errors during a performance.
• An unskilled athlete may occasionally ‘fluke’ a good performance whereas a skilled athlete can perform well over and over.
• Skilled performers have progressed to the autonomous stage of skill acquisition, resulting in an automatic performance of skill.

technique
• Technique refers to the technical aspects of skill execution; the result is efficient and consistent movement.
• Skilled athletes tend to maintain correct technique despite fatigue or the game situation. They have developed their skills to be fluent, smooth and well performed.
• The movement is more economical, will not use as much energy, and is biomechanically correct and therefore less likely to cause injury.

Question 71

OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE PERFORMANCE MEASURES

Answer 71

OBJECTIVE = Using measurement devices to decrease bias and personal opinions of observer e.g. using tape measure/stop watch.

SUBJECTIVE
• dependent on the observer and based on opinions, feelings, and general impressions.
• Subjective measures rely more on the observer than independent measures e.g. Sports such as dance and gymnastics are more subjective than objective in their measures.

Question 72

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF TESTS

Answer 72

• the test’s ability to measure what it is supposed to measure.
• A beep-test is meant to test an athlete’s cardiovascular endurance. It is valid, because it gives an accurate prediction of an athletes VO2 max, though a VO2 max test, done in a laboratory would be a more valid test.
• refers to the test’s consistency, the ability of the scorer to produce the same result each time for the same performance.
• A shuttle run is a reliable agility test if the same tester produces the same result with the same athlete under the same conditions in succession.
• The use of similar equipment, checklists, procedures and conditions improves the reliability of the test.

Question 73

PERSONAL VERSUS PRESCRIBED CRITERIA

Answer 73

• the presuppositions brought to the performance by the judge and are very subjective e.g. judge’s expectations and preconceived ideas about the performance.
• Spectators and coaches often use personal judging criteria when judging a performance.
• established criteria created by the sporting body, which are then used to appraise performance.
• This often comes in the form of a checklist or rating system and helps to objectify subjective measurements.
• The more detailed the judging criteria and stringent the judge the better the objectivity and reliability of the judging criteria.